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THE 



PRINCIPLES 



OF 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



WITH 



COPIOUS EXERCISES 



IN 



PARSING AND SYNTAX. 



ARRANGED ON THE BASIS OF LENNIE's GRAMMAR, 

BY JOAB BRACE, Jr. 






/ PHILADELPHIA: J«*M«tf?^ 

HENRY PERKINS, 134 CHESTNUT STREET. 
BOSTON: IVES AND DENNET, 

114 Washington Street. e 

1840. 









9 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1839, by 

Heney Perkins, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, of the 

Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



T. K. & P. O. COLLISS, PRIKT.EPS, PHILA. 



PREFACE. 



The English Grammar is usually one of the first 
books that is placed in the hands of the school-boy. 
The knowledge of our own language being of primary 
importance, it has been supposed that grammar should 
hold a place among the earliest studies ; and accord- 
ingly, a science founded on nice metaphysical distinc- 
tions, and generalizations w T hich can be apprehended 
only by a mature mind, has been ranked among the 
studies suitable for childhood. As a consequence of 
this misapprehension we have two classes of grammars. 
By the first class the subject is treated of as a high 
branch of philosophy ; by the others it is presented in 
a state so diluted and simplified, that whatever else may 
be learned from them, English Grammar cannot be. 

In this little treatise it has been the object of the au- 
thor to present the facts and principles of the language 
in such a manner that with a faithful teacher the pupil 
may become thoroughly acquainted with the mechanical 
part of Grammar, and at the same time gain some in- 
sight into its philosophy. He has attempted to do for 
English what the Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard 
has done for Latin. It is for others to decide on the 
prudence and the success of the attempt. 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

The author has made some innovations on the usual 
mode of exhibiting certain parts of English Grammar. 
These have been made on the general principle of clas- 
sifying only the real usages, and rejecting those parts 
of a grammatical system foreign to our language 
which have been introduced in consequence of attempt- 
ing to make the grammar of the English correspond 
too closely with that of the Latin. Some of the pe- 
culiarities introduced may be pointed out here. 

Person, as applied to nouns, has been entirely omitted ; 
all nouns being considered as of the third person ; and 
in the case of address (as ; I, John Adams, President, 
&c.) as in apposition with the pronoun. 

The declension of nouns is omitted, and the pupil is 
made to feel that the terms Nominative, Possessive, and 
Objective are only names to denote that the noun bears 
a certain relation to a verb or to some other word in 
the sentence. 

The Adjective Pronouns have been classed under 
Adjectives. This was long since suggested by Dr. 
Webster ; we are not aware, however, that he has been 
followed by any other grammarian. 

The Verb is perhaps the subject of the most im- 
portant alterations. 

That form of the verb which is usually denominated 
the Past or Perfect (Active) Participle, has been re- 
moved to the Passive, and called the Indefinite Passive 
Participle. 

* This change is absolutely demanded by the general 
principle above stated. A few instances may be found 
in poetry, or peculiar idiomatic expression, of an un- 



PREFACE. 5 

compounded perfect participle belonging to an intran- 
sitive verb ; as in the following from the Paradise Lost : 

" Seems another morn 
Risen on mid noon." 

But these rare instances do not warrant the introduc- 
tion of a perfect participle into the paradigm of the in- 
transitive verb. In transitive verbs, whenever that form 
which is used in the past tenses (as, loved, struck, 
bought, cut, &c.) stands alone, it is an indefinite pas- 
sive participle ; indefinite, because it may be used in 
reference to Past, Present, or Future time, and passive, 
because it is so in signification. 

The Subjunctive Mode has been dropped, and the 
forms which are usually classed under it have been 
treated of under the head of Conditional Tenses. 

The author believes that a careful consideration of 

the suggestions on pages 38 and 39 will satisfy any one 

of the propriety of this arrangement. To assign a 

verb to a separate mode merely because preceded by a 

conjunction is manifestly erroneous. On this subject 

the following remarks have been made, in a notice of 

the first edition of this work, which appeared in one 

of the public journals: 

"The indicative may be preceded by a conjunction as well as by 
any other part of speech. Nice as the Latin is in its use of the 
subjunctive, the conjunctions by no means required this mode. 
Take for instance the sentence — If you are cold, come to the fire; 
here the Latin would not allow the subjunctive in the verb are, 
nor is there any more reason for assigning this verb in this case to 
any other than the indicative mode, than there would be if it were 
preceded by perhaps, probably, or by any expression such as 
I know, I believe, and the like. The same remarks apply to other 
tenses. Besides, no grammarian seems to have reflected that as the 
word if may precede the tenses of the Potential Mode, they should 

1* 



6 PREFACE. 

also in such a case be considered as subjunctive, or (to coin a 
name) subjundivo-potential" 

Numerous other alterations might be specified, less 
extensive indeed than those already mentioned, but bj 
no means unimportant. It will however be sufficient 
to state in general that there are many other variations 
from other grammars, and as compared with Lennie's 
that there is not a page, (with the exception of a part 
of the exercises,) and scarcely an important remark that 
has not been more or less changed. 

In several of the definitions and in some of the Rules, 
the author has adopted, as the best, the phraseology of 
Andrews and Stoddard. The Rules of Syntax are ar- 
ranged, as nearly as may be, in logical order. 

The list of Obsolete words, &c, is chiefly prepared 
from the notes of a course of Lectures by Professor 
Goodrich. 

Whatever may be its merits or its defects, the w r ork 
is now before the public. The author not only expects, 
but wishes that it may be closely scanned. If it is 
worthy it will pass the ordeal safely, and if it is unwor- 
thy the sooner it is condemned the better. Those cri- 
ticisms which shall be made in a spirit of fairness and 
candor will be kindly received, while those which are 
prompted by jealousy, prejudice, or a bigoted adherence 
to old systems although erroneous, will be alike forgiven 
and forgotten. 

Philadelphia, October 1, 1839. 



THE 

PRINCIPLES 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar teaches the principles of the 
English language. These principles relate : 

1. To its written characters, and the spelling of words. 

2. To its pronunciation. 

3. To the classification, derivation, and inflection of its words. 

4. To the construction of its sentences. 

5. To the quantity of its syllables, and its versification. 

The first is called Orthography; the second, Orthoepy; the 
third, Etymology ; the fourth, Syntax ; and the fifth, Prosody. 
Orthography and Orthoepy are learned from dictionaries. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography treats of the letters and other characters 
of a language, and the proper method of spelling words. 

A letter is the least part of a Word. 

There are twenty-six letters in English. 

Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

A Vowel is a letter, the name of which makes a full open 
sound. — The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, w, y. — The Consonants are 
b, c, d,f, g, h,j, k, /, m, n, p, q, r, s, t> v, x, z. 

A Consonant is a letter that has a sound less distinct than that 
of a vowel ; as, /, m, p. 

A Diphthong is the union of two vowels ; as, ou in out. 

A proper Diphthong is one in which both the Vowels are 
sounded ; as, oy in boy. 

An improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the two 
Towels is sounded ; as, o in boat. 

7 



8 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

A Triphthong is the union of three vowels ; as, eau in beauty. 
A Syllable is a part of a word, or as much as can be sounded 
at once ; as, far in far-mer. 

A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; as, fox, 
A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables ; as Pe-ter. 
A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables; as, but-ter-Jly, 
A Polysyllable is a word of many syllables. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the different kinds of words, 
their classification, derivation, and inflection. 

There are nine hinds of words ; — Articles, Nouns, 
Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, 
Conjunctions, and Interjections ; these are called Parts 
of Speech. 

ARTICLES. 

The words a or an and the are called articles. A 
is used before a consonant. — An is used before a vowel, 
or silent h ; as, an age, an hour. 

NOUNS. 
A Noun is the name of any thing ; as, John, Lon- 
don, book. 

Nouns have Number, Gender, and Case. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

A is used before the long sound of u, and before w and y ; as, 
A unit, a euphony, a ewe, a week, a year, such a one. — An is used 
before words beginning with h sounded, when the accent is on the 
second syllable ; as, An heroic action ; an historical account. 

A is called the indefinite article, because it does not point out a 
particular person, or thing ; as, A garden ; that is, any garden. 

The is called the definite article, because it refers to a particular 
person, or thing ; as, The garden ; that is, our own garden. 

A noun without an article to limit it, is taken in its widest 
sense ; as, Man is mortal ; namely, all mankind. 

A is used before nouns in the singular number only. — It is used 
before the plural in nouns preceded by such phrases, as, .4 few, a 
great many ; as, a few books ; a great many apples. 



NUMBER. 9 

The is used before nouns in both numbers ; and sometimes before 
adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree ; as, The more I 
study grammar the better I like it. 

NUMBER. 
Number is the distinction of one from more* 

Nouns have two numbers ; the Singular and the 
Plural, The singular denotes one, the plural more 
than one. 

1. The plural is generally formed by adding s to 
the singular ; as, Book, books. 

2. Nouns in s, sh, ch, x, or o, form the plural by 
adding es; as, Miss, Misses; brush, brushes; match, 
matches ; fox, foxes ; hero, heroes. 

3. Nouns in y change y into ies in the plural ; as, 

Lady, ladies: y with a vowel before it, is not 

changed into ies ; as, Day, days. 

4. Nouns in f, orfe, change/ or fe into ves in the 
plural ; as, Loaf, loaves ; life, lives. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Nouns ending in ch, sounding k, form the plural by adding s 
only ; as, Stomach, stomachs. 

Nouns in ss also form the plural by adding es ; as, Glass, 
glasses. 

Nouns in io with the words junto, canto, tyro, grotto, portico, 
solo, and quarto, have s only in the plural; as, Folio, folios,- 
canto, cantos. 

Nouns in ff, have their plural in s; as, Muff, muffs ; except 
staff, which has staves. 

Dwarf, scarf; brief, chief, grief kerchief, handkerchief mis- 
chief; gulf turf, surf; fife, strife ; proof, hoof roof and reproof 
never change/, ox fe, into ves. 

Nouns are either proper or common. — Proper nouns are the 
names of persons, places, seas, and rivers, &c. ; as, Thomas, Scot- 
land, Boston.* 

* Proper nouns have the plural only when they refer to a race or family; 
as, The Campbells ; or to several persons of the same name ; as, The eight 
Henrys; the two Mr. Bells; the two Miss Browns; (or without the nu- 



10 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

Common nouns are the names of things in general ; as, Chair, 
table. 

Collective nouns are nouns that signify many : as, Multitude, 
crowd. 

Abstract nouns are the names of qualities abstracted from their 
substances ; as, Wisdom, wickedness. 

Verbal or participial nouns are nouns derived from verbs ; as, 
Reading. 

EXERCISES ON NUMBER. 

Write, or tell, or spell, the Plural of 
Fox,* book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, kiss, coach, 
inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife, story, 
church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street; potato, peach, sheaf, 
booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, flower, city, difficulty, dis- 
tress. 

Day, boy, relay, chimney ,\ journey, valley, needles, enemy, an 
army, a vale, an ant, a sheep, the hills, a valley, the sea, key, toy. 

Correct the following errors. 
A end, a army, an heart, an horn, an bed, a hour, a adder, a 
honor, an horse, an house, an pen, a ox, vallies, chimnies, jour- 
nies, attornies, a eel, a ant, a inch, a eye. 

Exercises on the Observations. 
Monarch, tyro, grotto, nuncio, punctilio, ruff, muff, reproof, 
portico, handkerchief, gulf, hoof, fife, multitude, people, meeting, 
John, Lucy, meekness, charity, folly, France, Matthew, James, 
wisdom, reading. 

meral) the Miss Roys ; but, in addressing letters in which both or all are 
equally concerned, and also when the names are different, we pluralize 
the title, (Mr. or Miss) and write Misses Brown ; Misses Roy ; Messrs. (for 
Messieurs, Fr.) Guthrie and Tait. 
* What is the plural of fox ? Foxes. Why 1 Because nouns in s, sh, ch, 

z, or o, form the plural by adding es. What is the plural of book? Books. 

Why 1 Because the plural is generally formed by adding s to the singular. 

What is the pi-ural of leaf? Leaves. Why] Because nouns in/or/e 

change forfe into ves in the plural. What is the plural of army? Armies. 

Why? Because nouns in ?/ change y into ies in the plural. What is the 

plural of day? Days. Spell it; d, a, y, s. Why not d, a, i, e, s? Because y 

with a vowel before it is not changed into ies: — it takes s only. What 

is the difference between adding- and changing-? — K. No. 7, 8. 

f Many eminent authors change ey in the singular, into ies in the plural, 
thus, Chimnies with scorn rejecting smoke. Swift. 

Still as thou dost thy radiant Joannes run. Prior. 

But rattling nonsense'in full vollies breaks. Pope. 

The society of Procurators or Attornies. JBoswell. 



NUMBER. 



11 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their plural : 



such as, 








Singular, 
Man 


Plural, 
men 


Singular, 
Tooth 


Plural, 
teeth 


Woman 


women 


Goose 


geese 


Child 


children 


Mouse 


mice 


Foot 


feet 


Louse 


lice 


Ox 


oxen 


Penny 


pence 



The compounds of man form the plural like the simple ; namely, 
by changing a of the singular, into e of the plural. Mussulmen is 
sometimes used as the plural of Mussulman, The mistake pro- 
bably originated in the supposition that the word was a compound 
of man. Good use authorizes Mussulmans, 



Singular, 
Brother 
Sow or swine 
Die (for gaming) 
Die (for coining) 
Aide-de-camp 
Court-martial 
Cousin-german 
Father-in-law, &c. 



Plural, 
brothers, or brethren 
sows, or swine 
dice 
dies 

aides-de-camp 
courts-martial 
cousins-german 
fathers-in-law, &c. 



Brethren is generally applied to the members of the same 
society or church, and Brothers to the sons of the same parents. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things that are weighed or 
measured, &c. are in general singular,- as, Gold, meekness, 
drunkenness, bread, beer, beef, &c. except when the different sorts 
are meant, as, Wines, teas. 

Some nouns are used only in the plural ; such as, Antipodes, 
literati, credenda, minutiae, banditti, data, folk, ft 

The singular of literati, &c. is made by saying one of the 
literati. Bandit, as the singular of banditti, is often used in news- 
papers. 

The words Apparatus, hiatus, series, brace, dozen, means, and 
species, are alike in both numbers. Brace, dozen, &c. sometimes 
Imit of the plural form ; thus, He bought partridges in Braces, 
and books in Dozens, &c. 



12 



ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 



News and alms are generally used in the singular number, but 
sometimes in the plural Pains is generally plural 

The singular of some nouns is distinguished from the plural by 
the article a; as, A sheep, a swine. 

Pease and fish are used when we mean the species ; as, Pease 
are dear; fish is cheap; but when we refer to the number, we say, 
Peas, fishes ; as, Ten peas ; two fishes. 

Horse and foot, meaning cavalry and infantry, are used in the 
singular form with a plural verb ; as, A thousand horse were 
ready; ten thousand foot were there. — Men is understood. 

Words from Foreign Languages, 
Animalculum 
Antithesis 
Apex 

Appendix 

Arcanum* 

Automaton 

Axis* 

Basis 

Calx 

Cherub 

Crisis 

Criterion 

Datum 

Desideratum 

Diaeresis 

Effluvium 

Ellipsis 

Emphasis 

Encomium 

Erratum 

* Rule. Noun&i um or on have a in the plural ; and those which have 
is in the singular have es in the plural. 

f Genii, aerial spirits ; but geniuses, persons of genius. For what rea- 
son L. Murray, Elphinston, Oulton, and others, pluralize such words as 
genius and rebus, by adding ses to the singular, making them geniusses, 
rebusses, instead of geniuses, rebuses, it is not easy to guess : as words 
ending with a single s are never accented on the last syllable, there can 
be no good reason for doubling the s before es. Hence rule 2d, page 9th, 
begins with " Nouns in s," because those in s include those in ss. 

% Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents. Indices^ when 
it refers to algebraic quantities. 



i animalcula 


Focus 


foci 


antitheses 


Genius 


genii -j- 


apices 


Genus 


genera 


C appendixes 
C appendices 


Hypothesis 


hypotheses 


Ignis fatuus 


ignes fatui 


arcana 


Index 


indexes, indices^ 


automata 


Lamina 


laminae 


axes 


Magus 


magi 


bases 


Memoran > 


^memoranda, or 
£ memorandums 


calces 


dum 


cherubim, cherubs 
crises 


Metamor- 
phosis 


< metamorphoses 


criteria 


Monsieur 


messieurs 


data 


Phenomenon 


phenomena 


desiderata 


Radius 


radii 


diaereses 


Stamen stamina, or stamens 


effluvia 


Se'raph 


seraphim, seraphs 


ellipses 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


emphases 


Stratum 


strata 


C encomia 
£ encomiums 


Vertex 


vertices 


Vortex 


vortices 


errata 


Virtuoso 


virtuosi 



GENDER. 



13 



It was thought unnecessary to give a list of such words of our 
own ; as, snuffers, scissors, iongs, &c. because they are evidently 
to be used as plural ; but it may be proper to observe that such 
words as Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, ethics, pneumatics, 
&c, though generally plural, are sometimes used as singular, as, 
Mathematics is a science ; and so of the rest. 

GENDER. 
Gender is the distinction of sex. 

There are three genders ; the Masculine, Feminine, 
and Neuter. 

The Masculine denotes the male sex; as, A man, 
a boy. 

The Feminine denotes the female sex; as, A woman, 
a girl. 

The Neuter denotes whatever is without life ; as, 
Milk. 

There are three ways of distinguishing the sex. 

1. Bv different words : as, 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor 


maid, spinster 


Horse 


mare 


Beau 


belle 


Husband 


wife 


Boar 


sow 


King 


queen 


Boy 


girl 


Lad 


lass 


Brother 


sister 


Lord 


lady 


Buck 


doe 


Man 


woman 


Bull 


cow 


Master 


mistress 


Bullock 
Ox, or steer 


> heifer, — hef-er 


Milter 
Nephew 


spawner 
niece 


Cock 


hen 


Ram 


ewe 


Colt 


filly 


Singer 


C* songstress 


Dog 


bitch 


£ or singer 


Drake 


duck 


Sloven 


slut 


Earl 


countess 


Son 


daughter 


Father 


mother 


Stag 


hind 


Friar 


nun 


Uncle 


aunt 


Gander 


goose 


Wizard 


witch 


Hart 


roe 


Sir 


madam 



14 



ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 



OBSERVATIONS. 



Some nouns are either masculine or feminine: such as parent, 
child, cousin, infant, servant, neighbor % &c. 

Some nouns, naturally neuter, are converted into the masculine, 
or feminine gender : as, when we say of the sun, He is setting ; 
and of the moon, She is eclipsed. 



2. 


By a difference of termination ; as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Actor 


actress 


Landgrave 


landgravine 


Administrator administratrix 


Lion 


lioness 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Patron 


patroness 


Author (often) authoress* 


Peer 


peeress 


Baron 


baroness 


Poet 


poetess* 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Priest 


priestess 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Prince 


princess 


Caterer 


cateress 


Prior 


prioress 


Chanter 


chantress 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Conductor 


conductress 


Protector 


protectress 


Count 


countess 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Songster 


songstress 


Duke 


dutchess 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Elector 
Emperor 


electress 
empress 


Sultan 


~) sultaness, or 
5 sultana 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Tiger 


tigress 


Executor 


executrix 


Traitor 


traitress 


Governor 


governess 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Heir 


heiress 


Tyrant 


tyranness 


Hero 


her-o-ine 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Hunter 


huntress 


Votary 


votaress 


Host 


hostess 


Widower 


widow 



3. ••By prefixing another word; as, 

A coc&-sparrow, a ^en-sparrow ; a he-goat, a she-goat ; a man- 
servant, a maid-servant; a he-ass, a she-ass; a male-child, &c. 
male descendants, &c. 



* It does not appear to be necessary to use authoress, poetess ; for the 
female noun or pronoun that almost invariably accompanies these words 
will distinguish the gender in them as well as in writer, &c. 



CASE. ADJECTIVES. 15 

CASE. 

Case is the relation one noun bears to another, or to a verb, or preposition. 

Nouns have three cases ; the Nominative, Posses- 
sive, and Objective. 

When a noun stands for that which performs the 
action, or exists in the manner spoken of, it is said to 
be the subject of the verb which denotes the action or 
existence ; and is then in the Nominative case : as, 
The boy runs ; the boy is punished. The noun boy 
is here the subject, because it is that which runs, or 
which is punished. 

When a noun stands for that on which the verb acts, 
or has a preposition joined with it, it is said to be the 
object of the verb or preposition, and is then in the 
Objective case; as, / love my books; the love of 
books. The word books is the object. 

When a noun has an Apostrophe, or an apostrophe 
with an s, to show that it possesses something, it is 
said to be in the Possessive case; as, A man's hat ; 
ladies' bonnets. 

In nouns, the Nominative and Objective are alike ; 
but in the Pronouns they have different forms. 

EXERCISES. 

On Gender, Number, and Case. 

Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, wife, hats, 
sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' wings, echo, ox's horn, 
mouse, kings, queens, bread, child's glass, tooth, tongs, candle, 
chair, Jane's boots, Robert's shoe, horse. 

ADJECTIVES. 

An adjective is a word which expresses the quality 
of a noun ; as, A good boy. 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison ; the 
Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 



16 



ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 



The Positive expresses the simple quality ; the Com- 
parative a higher or lower degree of the quality ; and 
the Superlative the highest or lowest degree ~ K - 33 -/ 37 - 

The comparative is formed by adding er to the posi- 
tive ; and the superlative, by adding est; as, Sweet, 
sweeter, sweet est. —K - 32 - 

Dissyllables in y change y into i before er and est ; 
as in Happy, happier, happiest:* 

Adjectives compared Irregularly*. 



Positive. 




Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good, (well an 


Adv.) 


better 


best 


Bad, evil, or ill 




worse 


worst 


Little 




less 


least 


Much or many 




more 


most 


Late 




later 


latest or last 


Near 




nearer 


nearest or next 


Far 




farther 


farthest 


Fore 




former 


foremost or first 


Old 




older or elder 


oldest or eldest 



OBSERVATIONS. 

Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared, by adding er 
and est ; and those of more than one by prefixing more and most ; 
as, More numerous, most numerous ; — or, by less and least ; as, 
Less merry, least merry, 

Dissyllables ending with e final are often compared by er and 
est; as, Polite, politer, politest ,- Ample, ampler, amplest 

*If a vowel precedes y, it is not changed into i, before er and est ; 
as, Gay, gayer, gayest ; Coy, coyer, coyest. 

Some adjectives are compared by adding most to the end of the 
word ; as, Upper, uppermost. — Some have no positive ; as, Exte- 
rior, extreme. 

Nouns are often used as adjectives ; as, A gold-ring, a silver- 
cup. Adjectives often become nouns ; as, Much good. 

Some adjectives do not properly admit of comparison ; such as, 
True, perfect, universal, chief, extreme, &c. 

Much is applied to things weighed or measured ; Many to those 
that are numbered. Elder and eldest to persons : older and oldest 
to things. 



PRONOUNS. 17 

When the positive ends in a single consonant, preceded by a 
single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est ; as, Big, 
bigger, biggest. 

My, thy, his, her, our, your, their, its, own, each, every, either, 
neither, this, that, any, all, such, whole, some, both, one, other, 
another, although sometimes called adjective pronouns, are pro- 
perly adjectives. 

None, which is sometimes classed with these, is properly a noun : 
it is the same in both numbers. 

His and her are adjectives when placed immediately before 
nouns; but when they stand by themselves, his is accounted the 
possessive case of the personal pronoun he, and her the objec- 
tive of she. 

Its and own seem to be as much entitled to the appellation of 
adjectives as his and my. k 

Yon, with former and latter, are also adjectives. See Syntax, 
R. XII. 

That is sometimes a Relative, and sometimes a Conjunction. 

That is a Relative when it can be turned into who or which, 
without destroying the sense ; as, " The days that (or which) are 
past are gone for ever." 

That is a Conjunction when it cannot be turned into who or 
which, and cannot be joined to a noun without destroying the 
sense ; but marks a consequence, an indication, or final end : as, 
"He was so proud, that he was universally despised." He an- 
swered, "That he never was so happy as he is now." " Live well, 
that you may die well." 

The phrase none other should be no other. Another has no 
plural. 

One, other, another have the same cases as nouns. Other is 
used in the plural. 

PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, 
John is a good boy ; he obeys the master. 

There are two kinds of pronouns ; Personal and 
Relative. 

2* 



18 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

There are five Personal Pronouns ; I, thou, he, she, 
and it, with their cases. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj. 

rnZT 761 ' 80 ^ l mlne me We 0UrS US 

{Thou thine thee 
or or or You yours you 

Yout yours you 

3. m. He his him "} 

3.f. She hers her V They theirs them 

3. n. It its it ) 

Exercises on Personal Pronouns. 

I, thou, we, me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, 
thee, them, its, theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, 
his, I, me, them, us, it, we. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

*The person who speaks is said to be of the first person; the 
person spoken to, is of the second person ; and the person or thing 
spoken of, of the third person. 

Ye is often used instead of you in the nominative ; as, Ye are 
happy. 

•fYou was originally the Plural Pronoun ; it has, however, come 
to be used instead of the singular. That it is in reality plural 
appears from the fact that it is almost always joined with the plural 
form of the verb. Other languages have the same peculiarity. 

Mine and thine were formerly used instead of my and thy be- 
fore a vowel or an h ; as, Blot out all mine iniquities ; Give me 
thine heart. 

Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written, her's, iCs, 
our's, your's, their s ; but hers, its, ours, &c. 

The compound personal pronouns, Myself, thyself, himself, &c. 
are commonly joined either to the simple pronoun, or to any ordi- 
nary noun to make it more remarkable. — See K. 45. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 19 

These pronouns are all generally in the same case with the noun 
or pronoun to which they are joined ; as, "She herself said so ;" 
"They themselves acknowledged it to me myself." ''The master 
himself got it." 

Self when used alone, is a noun, as, " Our fondness for self is 
hurtful to others." It is sometimes an adjective ; as, Self love. It 
is commonly used in composition with my, thy, him, &c. the two 
making but one w r ord, which should be called & personal "pronoun, 
because myself thyself &c. are just equal to I or me ; thou or 
thee, &c. 

In some grammars the possessive case of the different personal 
pronouns stands thus: 1st, my or mine, our or ours — 2d, thy or 
thine, your or yours — 3d, her or hers, their or theirs. There is 
no impropriety in this method ; the one preferred, however, is per- 
haps less liable to objection. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A Relative Pronoun is a word that refers to a word 
before it, called the antecedent ; as, The master who 
taught us, &c. 

The simple relatives are who, which, and that; they 
are alike in both numbers, thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn, Who. Norn. Who. 

Poss. Whose. Poss. Whose. 

Obj. Whom. Obj. Whom. 

Who is applied to persons ; as, The boy who. 

Which is applied to inferior animals, and things 

without life ; as, The dog which barks ; the book 
which was lost. 

That is often used instead of who or which : as, 
The boy that reads ; the book that was lost. 

What is a compound relative, including both the 
relative and the antecedent; as, This is what I wanted ; 
that is, the thing which I wanted. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
In asking questions, Who, which, and what are called interro- 
g-atives as, Who said that 1 What did he do ] 



20 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

The relative is always of the same gender, number, and person 
with its antecedent, but not always in the same case. 

Which has properly no possessive case of its own. The objec- 
tive with of before it supplies its place. Our best writers, however, 
now use whose as the possessive of which: as, "A religion whost 
origin is divine." — Blair. 

That and what are the same in all the cases. 

The relative sometimes refers to a whole clause as its antecedent ; 
as, The bill was rejected by the Lords, which excited no small de- 
gree of jealousy and discontent ; that is, which thing, or circum- 
stance, excited, &c. 

Who is applied to inferior animals, when they are represented 
as speaking and acting like rational beings. 

What and which are sometimes used as adjectives ; as, " I know 
not by what fatality the adversaries of the motion are impelled :" — 
which things are an allegory. Which here is equal to these. 

Whoever, whosoever, and whoso, are compound relatives equal 
to He who,- or, The person that. — K. 53. 

Whatever and whatsoever, with whichever and whichsoever, are 
sometimes adjectives, and combine with nouns : and sometimes 
compound relatives, equal to that which. These compounds, 
however, particularly whoso, are now generally avoided. What- 
ever and whoever are most used. 

Promiscuous Exercises on Nouns, &c. 

A man, he, who, which, that, his, me, mine, thine, whose, they, 
hers, it, we, us, I, him, its, horse, mare, master, thou, theirs, thee, 
you, my, thy, our, your, their, his, her — this, these, that, those — 
each, every, either, any, none, bride, daughter, uncle, wife's, sir, 
girl, madam, box, dog, lad, a gay lady, sweet apples, strong bulls, 
fat oxen, a mountainous country. 

Compare, Rich, merry, furious, covetous, large, little, good, bad, 
near, wretched, rigorous, delightful, sprightly, spacious, splendid, 
gay, imprudent, pretty. 

The human mind, cold water, he, thou, she, it, woody moun- 
tains, the naked rock, youthful jollity, goodness divine, justice 
severe, his, thy, others, one, a peevish boy, hers, their strokes, 
pretty girls, his droning flight, her delicate cheeks, a man who, 
the sun that, a bird which, its pebbled bed, fiery darts, a nu- 
merous army, love unbounded, a nobler victory, gentler gales, 



VERBS. 21 

nature's eldest birth, earth's lowest room, the winds triumphant, 
some flowery stream, the tempestuous billows, these things, 
those books, that breast which, the rich man's insolence, your 
queen, all who, a boy's drum, himself, themselves, myself.* 

VERBS. 

When we say of any thing that it exists or acts in 
any way, the word that expresses that action or exist- 
ence is called a Verb. 

Verbs are of three kinds, Active, Passive, and 
Neuter. 

An Active verb is one which requires an object after 
it to complete the sense ; as, James strikes the tablet 

A Passive verb is one which affirms that the thing 
spoken of is acted upon; as, The table is struck. 

A Neuter verb is one which is neither Active nor 
Passive ; as, I am, he sleeps, you run.% 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

The auxiliary or helping verbs, by which the modes 
and tenses of other verbs are chiefly formed, are defec- 
tive, having only the Present and Past Indicative ; thus, 

Pres. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, am, must. 
Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, w r as, must. 

And the Participles (of be) being, been — Be, do, have, 
and will are often principal verbs. § 

Let is an active verb, and complete. Ought is a defective verb, 
having only the Present and Past Indicative. 

* The personal pronouns Himself, herself, themselves, &c. are used in 
the nominative case as well as in the objective ; as, Himself shall come. 

f Active verbs are called transitive verbs, because the action passes 
from the actor to the object. — K. 73, Note. 

X Neuter verbs are called intransitive, because their action is confined 
to the actor, and does not pass over to an object. 

$ It was thought quite unnecessary to conjugate the verbs have and do> 
&c. through all their modes and tenses ; because a child that can readily 
conjugate the verb to love, can easily conjugate any other verb. 



22 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

A verb has Modes, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 

MODES OF VERBS. 

Verbs have four modes ; namely, the Indicative, 
Potential, Imperative, and Infinitive.* 

The Indicative mode simply declares a thing ; as, 
He loves; he is loved; or it asks a question; as, 
Lovest thou me ? 

The Potential mode implies possibility, liberty, 
power, will, or obligation ; as, The wind may blow : 
we may walk or ride ; I can swim ; he would not 
stay; you should obey your parents. 

The Imperative mode commands, exhorts, entreats, 
or permits ; as, Do this ; remember thy Creator ; hear, 
O my people ; go thy way. 

The Infinitive mode expresses action or existence 
in a general manner, without distinction of number or 
person, and commonly has to before it ; as, To love. 

OBSERVATION. 
Every Active verb has a corresponding Passive. 

TENSES, OR DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 

The Present tense expresses what is going on at 
the present time ; as, / love you ; / strike the table. 

The Past tense represents the action or event 
either as past and finished ; as, He broke the bottle 
and spilt the ink ; or it represents the action as unfi- 
nished at a certain time past; as, My father was coming 
home when I met him. 

The Perfect tense implies that an action has just 
now, or lately been quite finished ; as, John has cut 
his finger ; I have sold my horse. 

The Pluperfect tense represents a thing as past, 

*That which is commonly called the subjunctive mode is given sepa- 
rately. 



VERBS. 23 

before another event happened ; as, All the judges had 
taken their places, before Sir Roger came. 

The Future represents the action as yet to come ; 
as, I will see you again, and your heart shall rejoice.* 

The Future Perfect intimates that the action will 
be fully accomplished, at, or before the time of another 
future action or event ; as, I shall have got my lesson 
before ten o'clock to-morrow. 

Remarks on some of the Tenses. 

THE TRESENT. 

1. The present Tense is used to express a habit or custom ; as, 
He takes snuff; She goes to church. It is sometimes applied to 
persons long since dead, when the narration of their actions excites 
our passions ; as, " Nero is abhorred for his cruelty." " Milton is 
admired for his sublimity." 

2. In historical narration, it is beautifully used for the Past 
Tense ; as, " Csesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters 
Italy with five thousand men." — It is sometimes used with fine 
effect for the Perfect ; as, " In the book of Genesis, Moses tells us 
who were the descendants of Abraham," — for has told us. 

3. When preceded by such words as when, before, as soon as, 
after, it expresses the relative time of a future action ; as, When 
he comes, he will be welcome. — As soon as the mail arrives, the 
letters will be delivered. 

4. In the continuate, progressive, or compound form, it expresses 
an action begun and going on just now, but not complete ; as, I 
am studying my lesson. He is writing a letter. 



The Past Tense is used when the action or state is limited 
by the circumstance of time or place ,• as, " We saw him yester- 
day" " We were in bed when he arrived" Here the words 
yesterday and when limit the action and state to a particular time. 

* Mr. Walker and others have divided the first future, into the future 
foretelling, and the future promising or commanding. That this distinction 
is absolutely necessary, as Mr. Walker affirms, is exceedingly questionable; 
for when a learner has occasion to use the future tense, this division will 
not in the least assist him in determining whether he ought to use will 
rather than shall, &c. Therefore this division serves no purpose. 



24 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

After death all agents are spoken of in the past tense, because time 
is limited or defined by the life of the person ; as, " Mary Queen 
of Scots was remarkable for her beauty." 

This tense is peculiarly appropriated to the narrative style; 
because all narration implies some circumstance ; as, "Socrates 
refused to adore false gods." Here the period of Socrates's life 
being a limited part of past time, circumscribes the narration. It 
is improper then to say of one already dead, " He has been much 
admired ; he has done much good :" but, " He was much admired ; 
he did much good." 

Although the Past Tense is used when the action is cir- 
cumstantially expressed by a word or sentiment that limits the 
time of the action to some definite portion of past time, yet such 
words as often, sometimes, many a time, frequently, and similar 
vague intimations of time, except in narrations, require the perfect, 
because they admit a certain latitude, and do not limit the action 
to any .definite portion of past time, thus, " How often have we 
seen the proud despised." 

THE PERFECT. 

The Perfect Tense chiefly denotes the accomplishment of mere 
facts without any necessary relation to time or place, or any other 
circumstance of their existence ; as, Philosophers have endeavored 
to investigate the origin of evil. In general, however, it denotes, 

1. An action newly finished; as, I have heard great news. 
The mail has arrived, but has brought no letters for you. 

2. An action done in a definite space of time, (such as a day, a 
week, a year,) a part of which has yet to elapse ,• as, I have spent 
this day well. 

3. An action perfected some time ago, but whose consequences 
extend to the present time ; as, We have neglected our duty, and 
are therefore unhappy. 

Duration or existence requires the perfect ; as, He has been 
dead four days. We say, Cicero has written orations, because 
the orations are still in existence,- but we cannot say, Cicero has 
written poems, because the poems do not exist ; they are lost ; 
therefore, we must say, " Cicero vjrote poems." 

The following are a few instances in which this tense is impro- 
perly used for the past. " I have somewhere met with the epitaph 
of a charitable man, which has very much pleased me." Speck. 
No. 177. The latter part of this sentence is rather narrative than 



VERBS. 23 

assertive ; and therefore it should be — which very much pleased 
me, that is, when I read it. — " When that the poor hath cried, 
Caesar hath wept." Shaksp. The style is here narrative : Csesar 
was dead. It should therefore be, " When the poor cried, Csesar 
wept." — " Though in old age, the circle of our pleasures is more 
contracted than it has formerly been ; yet, &c." Blair, Serm. 12. 
It should be, "than it formerly was" because in old age, the for- 
mer stages of life, contrasted with the present, convey an idea, not 
of completion, but of limitation, and thus become a subject of nar- 
ration, rather than of assertion. — "I have known him, Eugenius, 
when he has been going to a play, or an opera, divert the money 
which was designed for that purpose, upon an object of charity 
whom he has met with in the street." Spect. No. 177. It should 
be, " When he was going," and " whom he met with in the street ;" 
because the actions are circumstantially related by the phrases, 
when going to a play and in the street. 

THE FUTURE PERFECT. 

The Second Future should have will or shall in all the persons, 
as in the first. Mr. Murray has excluded will from the first per- 
son, and shall from the second and third, because they appear to 
him to be incorrectly applied ; and in the examples which he has 
adduced, they are incorrectly applied ; but this is not a sufficient 
reason for excluding them altogether from every sentence. The 
fault is in the writer ; he has applied them wrong, a thing that is 
often done with will and shall in theirs/ future, as well as in the 
second. 

If I am at liberty to use will in the first future, to intimate my 
resolution to perform a future action, as, " I will go to church, for 
I am resolved to go," why should I not employ will in the second 
future, to intimate my resolution or determination to have an action 
finished before a specified future time] Thus, " I will have writ- 
ten my letters before supper :" that is, I am determined to have 
my letters finished before supper. Were the truth of this affirma- 
tion, respecting the time of finishing the letters, called in question, 
the propriety of using will in the first person would be unques- 
tionable. Thus, You will not have finished your letters before 
supper, I am sure. Yes, / will. Will what? "Will have 
finished my letters." 

Shall, in like manner, may with propriety be applied to the 
second and third person. In the third person, for instance, if I 
say, " He will have paid me his bill before June," I merely foretell 
what he will have done ; but that is not what I intended to say. 

3 



£6 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

I meant to convey the idea, that since I have found him dilatory, I 
will compel him to pay it before June ; and as this was my mean- 
ing, I should have employed shall, as in the first future, and said, 
" He shall have paid me his bill before June." 

It is true, that we seldom use this future ; we rather express the 
idea as nearly as we can, by the first future, and say, " He shall 
pay his bill before June : but when we do use the second future, 
it is evident, from the examples just given, that shall and will 
should be applied in it, exactly as they are in the first — See 1 Cor. 
xv. 24. — Luke xvii. 10. 

THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

The auxiliary verbs, as they are called, such as, Do, shall, will, 
may, can, and must, are in reality separate verbs, and were ori- 
ginally used as such, having after them, either the Past Participle, 
or the Infinitive Mode, with the to suppressed, for the sake of 
sound, as it is after bid, dare, &c. (See Syntax, Rule VIII.) Thus, 
I have loved. We may to love. He will to speak. I do to write. 
I may to have loved. We might to have got a prize. I would to 
have given him the book. All must to die. I shall to stop. I 
can to go. 

These verbs are always joined in this manner either to the 
Infinitive or participle ; and although this would be a simpler way 
of parsing the verb than the common, yet, in compliment perhaps 
to the Greek and Latin, grammarians in general consider the 
auxiliary and the following verb in the infinitive or participle as 
one verb, and parse and construe it accordingly. 

Several of the auxiliaries in the Potential mode refer to present, 
past, and future time. This needs not excite surprise ; for even 
the present Indicative can be made to express future time, as well 
as the future itself. Thus, " He leaves town to-morrow ." 

Present time is expressed in the following sentence. " I wish 
he could or would come just now." 

Past time is expressed with the similar auxiliaries; as, "It was 
my desire that he should or would come yesterday." "Though 
he was ill he might recover." 

Future, — I am anxious that he should or would come to-morrow. 
If he come I may speak to him. If he would delay his journey a 
few days, I might, could, would, or should accompany him. 

Although such examples as these are commonly adduced as 
pi-oofs that these auxiliaries refer to present, past, and future time, 



VERBS. 27 

yet it is pretty evident that might, could, would, and should, with 
may, and can, merely express liberty, ability, will, and duty, with- 
out any reference to time at all, and that the precise time is gene- 
rally determined by the drift or 3cope of the sentence, or rather by 
the adverb or participle that is subjoined or understood, and not by 
these auxiliaries. 

Must and ought, for instance, merely imply necessity, and obli- 
gation, without any necessary relation to time : for when I say, 
" I must do it," must merely denotes the necessity I am under, and 
do the present time, which might easily be made future, by saying, 
"I must do it next week;" Here future time is expressed by next 
week, and not by must. If I say, " I must have done it :" Here 
must merely expresses necessity as before, and I have done the 
past time. " These ought ye to do :" Here ought merely denotes- 
obligation, and do the present time. " These ought ye to have 
done :" Here ought merely expresses duty or obligation, as before ; 
but the time of its existence is denoted as past, by to have done, 
and not by ought, as Mr. Murray and many others say. 

As must will not admit of the objective after it, nor is even pre- 
ceded or succeeded by the sign of the infinitive, it has been con- 
sidered an absolute auxiliary, like may or can, belonging to the 
Potential Mode. 

Ought, on the contrary, is an independent verb, though defec- 
tive, and always governs another verb in the infinitive. 

will and SHALL. 

Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and 
•promising ; as, I will not let thee go, except thou bless me. We will go. 
I will make of thee a great nation. 

Will, in the second and third person, commonly foretells ; as, He will 
reward the righteous. You, or they, will be very happy there. 

Shall, in the^rsi person, only foretells ; as, I, or we, shall go to-morrow. 
In the second and third person, Shall, promises, commands, or threatens : 
as, They, or you, shall be rewarded. Thou shalt not steal. The soul 
that sinneth shall die. 

But this must be understood of affirmative sentences only : for when 
the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse commonly takes place; as, 
Shall I send you a little of the pie i i. e. will you permit me to send it? 
Will James return to-morrow ? i. e. do you expect him? 

When the second and third person are represented as the subjects of 
their own expressions, or their own thoughts, SHALL foretells, as in the 
first person ; as, " He says he shall be a loser by this bargain." " Do you 
suppose you shall go?" and WILL promises, as in the first person; as, 
"He says he will bring Pope's Homer to-morrow." You say you will 
certainly come. 

Of Shall, it may be remarked, that it never expresses the will or resolu- 



* 



28 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

tion of its Subject : Thus, I shall fall ; Thou shalt love thy neighbor ; He 
shall be rewarded, express no resolution on the part of/, thou, he. 

Did Will, on the contrary, always intimate the resolution of its Subject, 
the difficulty of applying will and shall would be at an end; but this can- 
not be said ; for though will in the first person always expresses the reso- 
lution of its Subject, yet in the second and third person it does not always 
foretell, but often intimates the resolution of its Subject as strongly as it 
does in the first person ; thus, Ye will not come unto me that ye may have 
life. He will not perform the duty of my husband's brother, Dent. xxv. 
7, see also verse 9. Accordingly would, the past time of will, is used in the 
same manner; as, And he was angry, and would not go in, Luke xv. 28. 

Should and would are subject to the same rules as shall and will; they 
are generally attended with a supposition ; as, Were I to run, I should 
soon be fatigued, &c. 

Should is often used instead of ought, to express duty or obligation ; as, 
We should remember the poor. We ought to obey God rather than men. 

Verbs. 

To Love. Active Verb. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 





Singular, 


Plural. 


I. 


person I love 


1. We love 


2. 


You* love 


2. Yout love 


3. 


He loves or loveth 


3. They lovt 
Past. 




Singular. 


Plural 


I. 


I loved 


1 . We loved 


2. 


You loved 


2. You loved 


a. 


He loved 


3. They loved 
Perfect. 




Its signs are 


have, hasty has, or hath. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


l. 


I have loved 


1. We have loved 


2. 


You have loved 


2. You have loved 


3. 


He has or hath loved 3. They have loved 



* In the second person singular, thou is used in the solemn style instead 
of you ,* as, Thou lovest, thou hast, thou wilt. 
i Ye is sometimes used instead of you, in the second person plural. 



VERBS. 29 

Pluperfect. 
Signs, had, hadst. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved 1. We had loved 

2. You had loved 2. You had loved 

3. He had loved 3. They had loved 

Future. 

Signs, shall or will. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I shall or will love 1. We shall or will love 

2. You shall or will love 2. You shall or will love 

3. He shall or will love 3. They shall or will love 

Future Perfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have 1. We shall or will have 

loved loved 

2. You shall or will have 2. You shall or will have 

loved loved 

3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have 

loved loved 

Potential Mode. 

Present. 
Signs, may, can, or must. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or must 

love love 

2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or 

must love must love 

3. He may, or can, or 3. They may, or can, or 

must love must love 

3* 



SO ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

Past. 
Signs, might, could, would, or should. 
Singular. Plural 

1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or 

would, or should love would, or should love 

2. You might, or could, or 2. You might, or could, or 

would, or should love would, or should love 

3. He might, or could, or 3. They might, or could, or 

would, or should love would, or should love 

Perfect. 
Signs, may, can, or must have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or must 

have loved have loved 

2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or 

must have loved must have loved 

3. He may, or can, or 3. They may, or can, or 

must have loved must have loved 

Pluperfect. 
Signs, might, could, would, or should have. 
Singiilar. Plural. 

1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or 

would, or should have would, or should have 

loved loved 

2. You might, &c. have 2. You might, &c. have 

loved loved 

3. He might, &c. have 3. They might, &c. have 

loved loved 

| Imperative Mode. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Love, or love thou, or 2. Love, or love ye, or 
do thou love* you, or do ye love 

* The Imperative Mode is not entitled to three persons. In strict pro- 
priety, it has only the second person in both numbers. For when I say, 
Let me love ; I mean, Permit thou me to love. Hence, let me love, is con- 
strued thus ; let thou me (to) love, or do thou let me (to) love. To, the 



VERBS. 31 

Infinitive Mode. 
Present, To love Perfect, To have loved 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Loving. Perf. Having loved. 

Exercises on the Tenses of Verbs, and Cases of Nouns and 

Pronouns. 
We love him ; James loves me ; it amuses him ; we shall con- 
duct them ; they will divide the spoil ; soldiers should defend their 
country ; friends invite friends ; she can read her lesson ; she may 
play a tune ; you might please her ; you may ask him ; he may 
have betrayed us ; we might have diverted the children ; John can 
deliver the message. 

I love ; to love ; love ; reprove thou ; has loved ; we tied the 
knot ; they could have commanded armies ; to baptise ; to have 
loved ; loved ; loving ; to survey ; having surveyed ; write a letter ; 
read your lesson ; you have obeyed my voice ; honor thy father. 
QUESTIONS which should be put to the pupils. 

How do you know that love is plural? Ans. Because we is plural. 
How do you know that love is the first person ? Ans. Because we is the 
first personal pronoun, and the verb is always of the same number and 
person with the noun or pronoun before it. — K. 59. 61. 

Many of the phrases in this page may be converted into exercises of a 
different kind ; thus the meaning of the sentence, We love him, may be 
expressed by the passive voice ; as, He is loved by us. 

It may also be turned into a question, or made a negative ; as, Do we 
love him ? &c. We do not love him. 

TO BE. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am* 1. We are 

2. You are 2. You are 

3. He is 3. They are 

sign of the infinitive, is not used after let. See Syntax, R. VIII. No one 
will say that permit (me to love) is the first person singular, imperative 
mode : then, why should let (mc to love) which is exactly similar, be called 
the first person? The Latin verb wants the first person, and if it has the 
third, it has also a different termination for it, which is not the case in 
the English verb.— K. 75. 

* Put loving- after am, &c. and it becomes an Active verb in the progres- 
sive form. Thus, I am loving-, you are loving, he is loving, &c. 
Put loved after am, and it becomes a Passive verb. 



32 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 







Past. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I was 


1. We were 


2. 


You was 


2. You were 


3. 


He was 


3. They were 
Perfect. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I have been 


1. We have been 


2. 


You have been 


2. You have been 


3. 


He has been 


3. They have been 
Pluperfect. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


is 


I had been 


1. We had been 


2. 


You had been 


2. You had been 


3. 


He had been 


3. They had been 



Future. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be 1. We shall or will be 

2. You shall or will be 2. You shall or will be 

3. He shall or will be 3. They shall or will be 

Future Perfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have 1. We shall or will have 

been been 

2. You shall or will have 2. You shall or will have 

been been 

3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have 

been been 



VERBS. 33 

Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or must 

be be 

2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or 
must be must be 

3. He may, or can, or 3. They may, or can, or 
must be must be 

Past. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or 
would, or should be would, or should be 

2. You might, or could, or 2. You might, or could, or 
would, or should be would, or should be 

3. He might, or could, or 3 They might, or could, or 
would, or should be would, or should be 

Perfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or must 
have been have been 

2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or 
must have been must have been 

3. He may, or can, or 3. They may, or can, or 
must have been must have been 

Pluperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or 
would, or should have would, or should have 
been been 

2. You might, or could, or 2. You might, or could, or 
would, or should have would, or should have 
been I been 



34 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

Singular. Plural. 

3. He might, or could, or 3. They might, or could, or 

would, or should have would, or should have 

been been 

Imperative Mode. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be or be thou 2. Be or be ye or you 

Infinitive Mode. 
Present, To be Perfect, To have been 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Being. Perf. Having been. 

Exercises on the Verb To Be. 

Am ; is ; was ; are ; I was ; they were ; we are ; has been ; 
had been; we have been; have been; he had been; you have 
been ; she has been ; we were ; they had been. 

I shall be; we will be; they shall be; it will be; we have 
been ; they will have been ; we shall have been ; am ; it is. 

I can be ; may be ; can be ; she may be ; you may be ; he 
must be ; they should be ; might be ; he would be ; it could be ; 
would be ; you could be ; he may have been ; was. 

We may have been ; they can have been ; I might have been ; 
you should have been ; would have been. 

Be thou ; be ; to be ; being ; to have been ; be ye ; been ; be ; 
having been ; to be. 

Snow is white ; he was a good man ; we have been younger ; 
she has been happy ; it had been late ; we are old ; you will be 
wise ; it will be time ; be cautious ; be heedful youth ; we may be 
rich ; they should be virtuous ; you might be wiser ; they must 
have been excellent scholars ; they might have been powerful. 

In the Bible he is sometimes used for the Present indicative ; as : We 
be true men, for, we are. 

Mig-htest, couldest, &c. are used in the Bible, and sometimes in poetry 
for mightsty couldst, &c. 



VERBS. 



35 



To be Loved. 



Passive Verb.* 



Singular. 

1. I am loved 

2. You are loved 

3. He is loved 

Singular. 

1. I was loved 

2. You was loved 

3. He was loved 



Singular. 

1. I have been loved 

2. You have been loved 

3. He has been loved 



Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We are loved 

2. You are loved 

3. They are loved 

Past. 

Plural. 

1. We were loved 

2. You were loved 

3. They were loved 

Perfect. 



Plural. 

1. We have been loved 

2. You have been loved 

3. They have been loved 



Pluperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

I had been loved 1. We had been loved 

You had been loved 2. You had been loved 
He had been loved 3. They had been loved 

Future. 
Singular. Ptural. 

I shall or will be loved I. We shall or will be loved 

You shall or will be 2. You shall or will be 
loved loved 

3. He shall or will be 3. They shall or will be 
loved loved 



* A Passive Verb is formed by putting the Passive Participle of any 
verb after the verb to be through all its modes and tenses.— K. 84, 85. 



36 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

Future Perfect. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I shall or will have 1. We shall or will have 

been loved been loved 

2. You shall or will have 2. You shall or will have 

been loved been loved 

3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have 

been loved been loved 

Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or 

be loved must be loved 

2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or 

must be loved must be loved 

3. He may, or can, or 3. They may, or can, or 

must be loved must be loved 

Past. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or 

would, or should be would, or should be 

loved loved 

2. You might, or could, or 2. You might, or could, or 

would, or should be would, or should be 

loved loved 

3. He might, or could, or 3. They might, or could, or 

would, or should be would, or should be 

loved loved 

Perfect. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or must 

have been loved have been loved 



VERBS. 37 

Singular. Plural 

2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or must 

must have been loved have been loved 

3. He may, or can, or 3. They may, or can, or 
must have been loved must have been loved 

Pluperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or 
would, or should have would, or should have 
been loved been loved 

2. You might, or could, or 2. You might, or could, or 
would, or should have would, or should have 
been loved been loved 

3. He might, or could, or 3. They might, or could, or 
would, or should have would, or should have 
been loved been loved 

Imperative Mode. 

Singular. Plural. 

2, Be you loved 2. Be ye or you loved 

Infinitive Mode. 
Present, To be loved Perfect, To have been loved 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Being loved. Pwf Having been loved. 

Indef. Loved. 

Exercises on the Passive Verb. 
They are loved ; we were loved ; you are loved ; it is loved ; 
she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have been loved ; I have 
been loved ; you had been loved ; we shall be loved ; you will 
be loved ; they will be loved ; I shall have been loved ; you will 
have been loved. 

He can be loved; you may be loved; she must be loved; 
they might be loved ; ye would be loved ; they should be loved ; 

could be loved ; you can have been loved ; it may have been 
loved; you might have been loved; you was loved; be thou 

4 



38 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

loved ; be ye loved ; be you loved ; to be loved ; loved ; having 
been loved ; to have been loved ; being loved. 

Promiscuous Exercises on Verbs, and Cases of Nouns and 
Pronouns. 

Tie John's shoes ; this is Jane's bonnet ; ask mamma ; he has 
learned his lesson ; she invited him ; your father may commend 
you ; he was baptised ; the minister baptised him ; we should have 
delivered our message ; papa will reprove us ; divide the apples ; 
the captain had commanded his soldiers to pursue the enemy ; 
Eliza diverted her brother ; a hunter killed a hare. 

After the pupil is expert in going over the Tenses of the verb as they 
are, he may be taught to omit all the auxiliaries but one, and go over the 
verb thus : Present Potential, I may love ; you may love ; he may love, &x.; 
and then with the next auxiliary, thus : I can love ; you can love ; he can 
love, &c. 



CONDITIONAL TENSES. 

When we say, If you are cold, come to the fire ; 
Unless you are willing, why do you consent ; If ye 
love me, keep my commandments, the verbs are and 
love are in the Indicative Mode. They are indeed 
preceded by conjunctions which render the sentences 
conditional, but this alone is not a sufficient reason for 
considering the verbs as belonging to a separate mode ; 
if it is, then there is reason for classing the verbs 
hates, is, and go, in the following sentences, under some 
other modes than the Indicative : — Perhaps he hates 
me, yet I forgive him ; It may be that he is rich, but 
he is not happy ; Probably I shall go, but I shall 
return soon ; I believe that he is sick, yet recovering: 
and if we are to undertake the formation of new modes 
in this way, it will be difficult to say where we are to 
stop. 

There are, however, some conditional forms of ex- 
pression which seem to require a distinct classification : 

1 . When we say, If you loved me, you would obey 
me, we have a conditional proposition or a supposition 
expressed by the conjunction if: it is also a supposi- 



VERBS. 39 

tion made with reference to the present time — If you 
loved me at the present time, or If you loved me now, 
you would obey me ; but to express this present time 
we use not the form of the present tense, love, but the 
form of the past tense, loved ; taking the form of the 
past tense to represent present time. 

2. When we say, Had I been there, I could have 
relieved him, we make a supposition relative to a past 
time, and to express a simple Past we use the form 
of the Pluperfect. It will also be noticed that in this, 
as in the preceding case, the condition or supposition 
which is stated is contrary to what is known to be the 
fact. Thus, to say, If you loved me, you would obey 
7ne, implies that you do not love me : to say, Had I 
been there, I could have relieved him, implies that / 
zvas not there. 

3. When we say, If he repent, or, If he repents, he 
will be forgiven, we make the supposition in reference 
to a future time, and to express that Future time we 
take the form of the Present. 

Cases of this kind may be ranged under three tenses, 
which we will call a Conditional Present, Conditional 
Past, and Conditional Future. 

The forms of these Tenses in the verbs To Be and 
To Love are as follows : — 

TO BE. 

Conditional Present 
Singular. Plural 

1. If I were, or was* 1. If we were 

2. If you were, or was 2. If you were 

3. If he were, or was 3. If they were t 

OBSERVATIONS. 
* The form If I were, If you were, &c. is strictly grammatical ; 
but the form If I was, If you was, &c. is used in common conver- 
sation, and sometimes by good writers. Thus, in familiar conver- 
sation, we should say, If I was going to New York, I should see 
him, rather than, If I were going, &c 



40 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

OR, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Were I 1. Were we 

2. Were you 2. Were you 

3. Were he 3. Were they 

SECOND FORM. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I might or could be* 1. If we might or could be 

2. If you might or could be 2. If you might or could be 

3. If he might or could be 3. If they might or could be 

OR, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Might I or could I be* 1. Might we or could we be 

2. Might you or could 2. Might you or could you 

you be be 

3. Might he or could he 3. Might they or could they 

be be 

Conditional Past. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
If I had been 
If you had been 
If he had been 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 
If we had been 
If you had been 
If they had been 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
Had I been 
Had you been 
Had he been 


OR, 
1. 

2. 
3. 


Plural. 
Had we been 
Had you been 
Had they been 



OBSERVATIONS. 

* These forms are sometimes used in reference to Future time; 

as, If I could leave the city to-morrow, I should reach home in a 

week. 



VERBS. 41 

SECOND FORM. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I might or could have 1. If we might or could 

been have been 

2. If you might or could 2. If you might or could 

have been have been 

3. If he might or could 3. If they might or could 

have been have been 

OR, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Might I or could I have 1. Might we or could we 

been have been 

2. Might you or could 2. Might you or could you 

you have been have been 

3. Might he or could he 3. Might they or could they 

have been have been 

Conditional Future. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am or be* 1. If we are or be 

2. If you are or be 2. If you are or be 

3. If he is or be 3. If they are or be 

SECOND FORM. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If 1 should be 1. If we should be 

2. If you should be 2. If you should be 

3. If he should be 3. If they should be 

OBSERVATIONS. 

* The form If I am, If you are, &c. is the one used in conver- 
sation, and almost universally by good writers : the form If I be, 
If you be, &c. from the obsolete present of the Verb be, is more 
ancient, and is still used frequently. It is always given in gram- 
mars as the correct form, but always in conversation, and usually 
in easy writing, it is avoided as being too stiff and formal : thus 
4* 



42 



ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 



Singular, 

1. Should I be 

2. Should you be 

3. Should he be 



OR, 

Plural, 

1. Should we be 

2. Should you be 

3. Should they be 



To Love. Active Verb. 

Conditional Present. 
Si?7gular. Plural. 

1. If I loved 1. If we loved 

2. If you loved 2. If you loved 

3. If he loved 3. If they loved 

OR, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Loved I 1. Loved we 

2. Loved you 2. Loved you 

3. Loved he 3. Loved they 

SECOND FORM. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I might,* or could,* 1. If we might, or could, or 

or did love did love 

2. If you might, or could, 2. If you might, or could, 

or did love or did love 

3. If he might, or could, 3. If they might, or could, 

or did love or did love 

OR, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Might I,* or could I,* 1. Might we, or could we, 
or did I love or did we love 

OBSERVATIONS. 

we should never say in conversation, If he be in the city this sum- 
mer, I shall see him ; but, If he is, &c. If it be, is often and very 
incorrectly used as the Present Indicative. 
* See the Note on page 40. 



VERBS. 



43 



Singular. Plural, 

2. Might you, or could 2. Might you, or could you, 

you, or did you lore or did you love 

3. Might he, or could he, 3. Might they, orcould they, 

or did he love or did they love 



Singular. 

1. If I had loved 

2. If you had loved 

3. If he had loved 

Singular. 

1. Had I loved 

2. Had you loved 

3. Had he loved 



Conditional Past. 

Plural. 

1. If we had loved 

2. If you had loved 

3. If they had loved 

OR, 

Plural. 

1. Had we loved 

2. Had you loved 

3. Had they loved 



S SECOND FORM. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I might or could 1. If we might or could 

have loved have loved 

2. If you might or could 2. If you might or could 

have loved have loved 

3. If he might or could 3. If they might or could 

have loved have loved 

OR, 

Singular. Plural, 

1. Might I or could I have 1. Might we or could we 

loved have loved 

2. Might you or could 2. Might you or could you 

you have loved have loved 

3. Might he or could he 3. Might they or could they 

have loved have loved 



44 



ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 



Conditional Future. 



Singular. 

1. If Hove 

2. If you love 

3. If he love or loves 



Plural. 

1. If we love 

2. If you love 

3. If they ldve 



SECOND FORM. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I should love 1. If we should love 

2. If you should love 2. If you should love 

3. If he should love 3. If they should love 



Singular. 

1 . Should I love 

2. Should you love 

3. Should he love 



OR, 

Plural. 

1. Should we love 

2. Should you love 

3. Should they love 



To Be loved. 



Passive Verb. % 



Conditional Present. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were or was loved 1. If we were loved 
&c. &c. 



Singular. 
1. Were I loved 
&c. 



OR, 

Plural. 
1. Were we loved 

&c. 



OBSERVATIONS. 



* The Conditional Tenses of the Passive Verb are formed by 
adding the Indef. Passive Participle of any Verb to the Conditional 
Tenses of the Verb Be. 



VERBS. 45 

SECOND FORM. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I might* or could* 1. If we might or could be 
be loved loved 

&c. &c. 

OR, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Might I* or could I* 1. Might we or could we 



be loved 


be loved 


&c. 


&c. 


Conditional Past. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1. If I had been loved 


1. If we had been loved 


&c. 


&c. 




OR, 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1. Had I been loved 


1. Had we been loved 


&c. 


&c. 



SECOND FORM. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I might or could 1. If we might or could 
have been loved have been loved 

&c. &c. 

OR, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Might I or could I 1. Might we or could we 
have been loved have been loved 

&c. &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

* See the Note on page 40. 



I 



46 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

Conditional Future. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. If I am or be loved 1. If we are or be loved 

&c. &c. 

SECOND FORM. 
Singular. Plural 

1. If I should be loved 1. If we should be loved 
&c. &c. 

OR, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Should I be loved 1. Should we be loved 

Exercises on the Conditional Tenses. 

Were I ; might you be ; had he been ; if he might be ; if I am ; 
should they be; could you have been; loved I; had I loved; if 
they love : should he love ; if he love ; if I was loved ; were he 
loved ; if you were loved ; had 1 been loved. 

If he was here, I would ask him. Were I now at home, I 
should be happy. Could they be here with us, we should enjoy 
their society. He might go to-day, if he was disposed to. If you 
do it you will be punished. If he should promise he will certainly 
perform. Had he known it he would have told me. Take heed 
lest you sometime offend him. If he had asked, I would have 
granted it. See that you do not do it again, for you will not 
escape. Had he been paid, he would have been contented. If 
is there to-morrow, I shall see him. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

As the forms of the Conditional Tenses are mostly the same as 
the forms of tenses in the Indicative and Potential modes, the pupil 
will in some instances be in doubt to which division the verb 
belongs : a few examples will show him how he is to decide the 
question. 

If he was here yesterday, I did not know it. Here, the verb was is 
not in the Conditional Present, but in the Indicative Past. If it re- 
ferred to the present time it would be in the Conditional Present; 
but it refers to past time, and it is therefore in the Indicative Past. 



VERBS. 47 

If you could read yesterday, you can to-day. If you could here 
refers to a. past time, and is therefore in the Potential Past : if it 
referred to the present time, it would be in the Conditional Present. 

He did not visit the place, unless he had been there before I 
arrived. Had been, in this example, does not refer to a simple 
past, but to a Pluperfect time, and it is therefore in the Pluperfect 
Indicative, and not in the Conditional Past. 

If he is here I do not see him. The verb is refers to the Present 
time, and not to the Future, and is therefore in the Indicative Pre- 
sent, and not in the Conditional Future. In the sentence, If he 
is there when we arrive we shall see him, the verb is, referring to 
a Future time, is in the Conditional Future. 

In the same way the Conditional Tenses of the Active and Pas- 
sive verb are to be distinguished from those tenses of the Indicative 
and the Potential, which have the same form. The Conditional 
Tenses usually follow conjunctions; they sometimes, however, 
follow other verbs. 



An Active or a Neuter Verb may be conjugated through all its 
modes and tenses, by adding its Present Participle to the verb 
To be : This is called the Progressive form ; because it expresses 
the continuation of action or state : Thus, 

Present. Past. 

I am loving I was loving 

You are loving You was loving 

He is loving, &c. He was loving, &c. 

The Present and Past Indicative are also conjugated by the 
assistance of Do, which is called the Emphatic for m ; Thus, 

Present. Past. 

I do love I did love 

You do love You did love 

He does love, &c. He did love, &c. 

Rule I. 

Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, or o, form the third person sin- 
gular of the Present Indicative, by adding es.- Thus, 

He dress-es, march-es, brush-es, fix-es, go-es. 



48 



ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 



Rule II. 

Verbs in j, change y into i before the terminations est, es, eth, 
and ed ; but not before ing ; — Y, with a vowel before it, is not 
changed into i : Thus, 

P res. Try, triest, tries or trieth.t Past, tried. Part, trying. 

Pres. Pray,prayest, prays or prayeth4 Past, prayed. Part, praying. 

Rule III. 

Verbs accented on the last syllable, and verbs of one syllable, 
ending in a single Consonant preceded by a single vowel, double 
the final consonant before the terminations, est, eth, ed, ing; 
but never before s : Thus, 

Allot, allottest, allots, allotteth, allotted, allotting. 
Blot, blottest, blots, blotteth, blotted, blotting. 

Irregular Verbs. 

A regular verb is one that forms its Past tense and 
Indefinite Passive participle by adding d or ed to the 
present ; as, Love, loved, loved. 

An irregular verb is one that does not form both its 
Past tense and Indefinite Passive participle by adding 
d or ed to the present ; as, 

Past 

abode * 

was * 

arose * 

awoke ir|* awaked . 

bore,§ bare born 

bore, bare borne 

beat beaten, or beat 

began begun 

bent r bent n 



Present. 

Abide 

Am 

Arise 

Awake 

Bear, to bring forth 

Bear, to carry 

Beat 

Begin 

Bend 



Indef. Pass. Partzsipk, 



* Neuter Verbs, as they have no Passive form, can have no Passive 
Participle. See page 53. 

For remarks on the Indef. Pass. Participle, the form Been, and on the 
verbal termination en, see the Key. 

I Those Verbs which are conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly^ 
are marked with an R. 

% This form of the third pers. sing. Indie. Present, is used in 
solemn style. 

$ Bore is now more used than bare. 



VERBS* 



49 



Present 


Past. 


Ind. Pass. Part 


Bereave 


bereft r 


bereft r. 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bid, for- 


bid, bad, bade 


bidden 


Bind, un- 


boundT 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Build, re- 


builtf 


built 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Bur 


bought 


bought 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught a 


caught r 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, or chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhere 


clave r 


* 


Cleave, to split 


clove, or cleft 


cloven, or cleft 


Cling 


clung 


* 


Clothe 


clothed 


clad r 


Come, be- 


came 


* 


Cost 


cost 


* 


Crow 


crew r 


* 


Creep 


crept 


# 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


* 


Bare, to challenge 


dared r 


dared 


Deal 


dealt r 


dealt r 


Dig 


dug, or digged 


dug, or digged 


Do, mU'Uri'% 


did 


done 


Draw, with- 


drew 


drawn 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Dwell 


dwelt r 


* 


Eat 


ate, or eat 


eaten 


Fall, be- 


fell 


* 



* See note Page 48, and Page 53. 

t Build, dwell, and several other verbs, have the regular form builded, 
dwelled, &c. 

% The compound verbs are conjugated like the simple, by prefixing the 
syllables appended to them : thus, Undo, undid, undone. 



50 



ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 



Present, 


Past 


Ind. Pass. Part 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee, from a foe 


fled 


* 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly, as a bird 


flew 


* 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get, be-for- 


gotf 


got, gottent 


Gild 


gilt r 


giltR 


Gird, be-en- 


girt r 


x girt r 


Give, for-mis- 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


* 


Grave, en- r 


graved 


graven 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Hang 


hung 


hung§ 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Hew, 


hewed 


hewn r 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, or hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold, be-with- 


held 


held 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Knit ' 


knit r 


knit, or knitted 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Lay, in- 


laid 


laid 


Lead, mis- 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie, to lie down 


lay 


* 



* See note Page 48, and Page 53. 

f Gat and begat are often used in the Scriptures for got and begot. 
% Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten is still in good use. 

# Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular; a,s, The Robber was 
hanged, but the gown was hung up. 



VERBS. 



51 



Past. 




Ind. Pass. Part, 


loaded 




laden r 


lost 




lost 


rnadt 




made 


meant 




meant 


met 




met 


mowed 




mown r 


paid 
put 

quit, or 
read 


quitted 


paid 
put 
quit r 
read 


rent 




rent 


rid 




rid 


rode 




ridden, or rode 


rang, or 


rung 


rung 


rose 




* 


rived 




riven 


ran 




* 


sawed 




sawn r 


said 




said 


saw 




seen 


sought 
seethed, 


or sod 


sought 
sodden 


sold 




sold 


sent 




sent 


set 




set 


shook 




shaken 


shaped 
shaved 




shapen r 
shaven r 


shore r 




shorn 


shed 




shed 


shone r 




* 


shod 




shod 


shot 




shot 


showed 




shown 


shrank, 


or shrunk 


shrunk 


shred 




shred 


shut 




shut 


sang, or 
sank, or 


sung 
sunk 


sung 
sunk 



* See note Page 48, and Page 53. 

f Or Shew, shewed, shewn— pronounced show, &c. 



52 



ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 



Present 


Past 


Ind. Pass. Part 


Sit 


sat-[- 


* 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


* 


Slide 


slid 


slidden 


Sling 


slang, or slung 


slung 


Slink 


slank, or slunk 


* 


Slit 


slit, or slitted 


slit, or slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


sown r 


Speak, be- 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spend, mis- 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt R 


spilt R 


Spin 


spun, or span 


spun 


Spit, fc-§ 


spit, or spat 


* 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread, be- 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprang, or sprung 


sprung 


Stand, with-% &c. 


stood 


* 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stink 


stank, or stunk 


* 


Stride, be~ 


strode, or strid 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


Strang, or strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


* 


Strew, ^ be- 


strewed 


strewed, or 


Strow 


strowed 


strown, strowed 


Swear 


swore, or sware 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat 


sweat 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen r 


Swim 


swam, or swum 


* 


Swing 


swang, or swung 


swung 


Take, be- &c. 


took 


taken 



* See note, page 48, and page 53. 

f Many authors use sate as the past time of sit; but this is improper, 
for it is apt to be confounded with sate, to glut. 

X Strew and shew are now giving way to strow and show. 

$ Bespit and toithstand are active verbs, and have the Indef. Pass. Part. 
bespit and withstood. 



VERBS. 



53 



Present, 


Past 


Ind. Pass. Part. 


Teach, mis-re- 


taught 


taught 


Tear un- 


tore 


torn 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think, be- 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


throve 


* 


Throw 


threw 




Thrust 


thrust 




Tread 


trod 




Wax 


waxed 




Wear 


wore 




Weave 


wove 




Weep 


wept 




Win 


won 




Wind 


wound 




Work 


wrought r 




Wring 


wrung 




Write 


wrote 





For the convenience of the pupil, the fo 
it shows that form of the Neuter verbs wi- 
the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Peri which 
would be called the Indefinite Passive Pai 
could have the Passive. 

Present. Past. 
Abide abode 
Am was 
Arise arose 
Cleave, to adhere clave r 
Cling clung 
Come, be- came 
Cost cost 
Crow crew r 
Creep crept 
Dare, to venture durst 
Dwell dwelt r 
Fall, be- fell 
Tlee,from a foe fled 
Fly ' flew 
Go went 
Lie, to lie down lay- 
Rise rose 
Run ran 



come 

crept 
dared 

fallen 

fled 

flown 

gone 

lain, or lien 

risen 

run 



54 



ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 



Present. 


Past. 








Shine 


shone r 






shone n 


Sit 


sat 






sat 


Sleep 


slept 






slept 


Slink 


slank, or 


slunk 




slunk 


Spit 


spit, or s 


pat 




spit, or spitten 


Stand 


stood 






stood 


Stink 


stank, or 


stunk 




stunk 


Strive 


strove 






striven 


Swim 


swam, or swum 




swum 


Thrive 


throve 






thriven 


Wax* 


waxed 






waxen 


Defective verbs 


are those which 


want some 


of their modes and 




tenses. 






Pres. 


Past. 


Pres. 




Past. 


Can 


could 


Shall 




should 


May 


might 


Will 




would 


Must 


must 


Wis 




wist 


Ought 


ought 


Wit or 


i 


wot 





quoth 


Wot 



EXERCISES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Mention the Past Tense and Indefinite Passive Participle of 
Take ; drive ; begin ; buy ; bring ; catch ; bereave ; burst ; draw ; 

drink ; get ; give ; feel ; forsake ; grow ; have ; hear ; hide ; keep ; 

know; lose; pay; ride; ring; shake; seek; sell; see; slay. 

ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjective, 
or another adverb, to express some quality or circum- 
stance of time, place, or manner, respecting it ; as, 
Ann speaks distinctly; she is remarkably diligent, 
and reads very correctly. 

A LIST OF ADVERBS. 

So ; no ; not ; nay ; yea ; yes ; too ; well ; up ; very ; forth ; 
how ; why ; far ; now ; then ; ill ; soon ; much ; here ; there ; 
where ; when ; whence ; thence ; still ; more ; most ; little ; less ; 

* This word is used in the Bible, as, The sun waxed warm. 



ADVERBS. 55 

least ; thus ; since ; ever ; never ; while ; whilst ; once ; twice ; 
thrice ; first ; scarcely ; quite ; rather ; again ; ago ; seldom ; often ; 
indeed; exceedingly; already; hither; thither; whither; doubt- 
less; haply; perhaps; enough; daily; always; sometimes; 
almost ; alone ; peradventure ; backward ; forward ; upward ; 
downward ; together ; apart ; asunder ; to and fro ; in fine. 

OBSERTATIONS. 

As and so, without a corresponding as or so, are adverbs. 

The most of those words that end in ly, are adverbs of manner 
or quality. They are formed from adjectives by adding ly ,- as 
from foolish comes foolishly. 

The compounds of here, there, where, and hither, thither, and 
whither, are all adverbs : except therefore and wherefore, occa- 
sionally conjunctions. 

Some adverbs are compared like adjectives ; as, often, oftener, 
oftenest. Some words as, ashore, afoot, aground, &c. are all 
adverbs. 

When more and most qualify nouns they are adjectives ; but in 
every other situation they are adverbs. 

An adjective with a preposition before it, is an adverb; as, in 
general, in haste, &c. i. e. generally, hastily. 

There are many words that are sometimes used as adverbs ,• as, 
I am more afraid than ever ; and sometimes as adjectives ; as, He 
has more wealth than wisdom. 

Some words are both prepositions and adverbs ; as, about (prep.) 
the house ; he rides about, (adv.) 

Exercises on Adverbs, Irregular Verbs, &c. 
Immediately the cock crew. Peter wept bitterly. He is here 
now. She went away yesterday. They came to-day. They 
will perhaps buy some to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter. She 
sung sweetly. Cats soon learn to catch mice. Mary rose up 
hastily. They that have enough may soundly sleep. Cain 
wickedly slew his brother. I saw him long ago. He is a very 
good man. Sooner or later all must die. You read too little. 
They talk too much. James acted wisely. How many lines can 
you repeat? You ran hastily. He speaks fluently. Then were 
they glad. He fell fast asleep. She should not hold her head 
a-wry. The ship was driven ashore. No, indeed. They are all 
alike. Let him that is athirst drink freely. The oftener you read 
attentively, the more you will improve. 



56 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

To-day, yesterday, and to-morrow, are adverbs. 
Much is used, — 

1. as an adverb ; as, It is much better to give than to receive* 

2. as an adjective ,- as, In much wisdom is much grief. 

3. as a noun ; as, Where much is given, much is required. 

To, before the infinitive of verbs, is an adverb, according to 
Johnson, and according to Murray, a preposition. The two toge- 
ther may be called the infinitive. 

Enough, (a sufficiency) is here a noun. Its plural, enow, is 
applied, like many, to things that are numbered. Enough, an adj. 
like much, should perhaps be applied only to things that are 
weighed or measured. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

A preposition is a word put before nouns and pro- 
nouns, to show the relation between them and some 
other word ; as, He sailed from Bristol to New York 
in twelve days. 

A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

About ; above ; according to ; across ; after ; against ; along ; 
amid ; amidst ; among ; amongst ; around ; at ; athwart. Bating ; 
before ; behind ; below ; beneath ; beside ; besides ; between ; be- 
twixt; beyond; by. Concerning. Down; during. Except; 
excepting. For; from. In; into; instead of. Near; nigh. Of; 
off; on; over; out of. Past. Regarding; respecting; round. 
Since. Through ; throughout ; till ; to ; touching ; towards. 
Under; underneath; unto; up; upon. With; within; without. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Every preposition requires an objective case after it. When a 
preposition is not followed by a noun, depending upon it, it be- 
comes an adverb ; as, He rides about. 

Some words are used as prepositions in one place, and as adverbs 
in another ; thus, Before is a preposition when it refers to place ; 
as, He stood before the door ; and an adverb when it refers to 
time ; as, Before that Philip called thee, I saw thee. The word 
before, however, and others in similar situations, may still be con- 
sidered as prepositions, if we supply an appropriate noun; as, Be* 
fore the time that Philip, &c. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 57 

Towards is a preposition, but toward is an adjective, and 
means " Ready to do or learn ; compliant with duty ; not froward.' , 
Toward is sometimes improperly used for towards. 

The Inseparable Prepositions are omitted, because an explana- 
tion of them can impart no information without a previous know- 
ledge of the radical word. Suppose the pupil is told that con means 
together, will this explain convene to him ] No : he must first be 
told that vene signifies to come, and then CON, together. Would 
3t not be better to tell him at once that convene means to come or 
call together ? 

Some grammarians distribute adverbs into classes ; such as 
adverbs, of negation, affirmation, &c. — prepositions into separable 
and inseparable — and conjunctions, into seven classes, besides the 
two mentioned here. Such a classification has been omitted here, 
because its utility is questionable. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction is a word which joins words and 
sentences together ; as, You and I must go to ride ; 
but Peter may stay at home. 

A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Copulative. — Also; and; because; both; for; if; since; that; 
then; therefore; wherefore. 

Disjunctive. — Although; as; as well as; but; either; except; 
lest ; neither ; nor ; notwithstanding ; or ; provided ; so ; than ; 
though ; unless ; whether ; yet. 

Exercises on Conjunctions, &c. 
Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. Blessed 
are the meek ; for they shall inherit the earth. The life is more 
than meat, and the body if more than riiment. Consider the 
ravens ; for they neither sow nor reap ; which have neither store- 
house nor barn ; and God feedeth them. You are happy, because 
you are good. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

When for can be turned into because, it is a Conjunction. 

Several words which are marked as adverbs in Johnson's Dic- 
tionary, are in many Grammars marked as conjunctions ; such as, 
Albeit ,- else,- moreover,- likewise,- otherwise,- nevertheless ; then; 
therefore ; wherefore. They are properly adverbs. 



■ 

58 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

But in some cases is an adverb ; as, " We are but (only) of 
yesterday, and know nothing." 

Sometimes the same words are used as conjunctions in one 
place, and as prepositions or adverbs in another place ; as, Since 
(conj.) we must part, let us do it peaceably ; I have not seen him 
since (prep.) that time ; Our friendship commenced long since (adv.^ 

INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection is a word which expresses some 
emotion of the speaker ; as, Oh, what a sight is here 
Well done ! 

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack ! away ! aha ! begone ! hark ! ho ! ha 
he ! hail ! halloo ! hum ! hush ! huzza ! hist ! hey-day ! lo ! 

strange ! brave ! joshaw ! see ! well-a-day, &c. 

Correct the following Errors. 

1 saw a boy which is blind. We saw an ass who brayed at u& 
I saw a flock of gooses. They will stay this two days. 
This is the horse who was lost. We was not there. 

This is the hat whom I wear. I loves him. 

John is here, she is a good boy. He love me. 

The hen lays his eggs. Thou have been busy. 

Jane is here, he reads well. He dare not speak. 

I saw two mouses. She needs not do it. 

The dog follows her master. We was sorry for it. 

This two horses eat hay. Thou might not go. 

John met three mans. He dost not learn. 

We saw two childs. If I does that. 

He has but one teeth. Thou may do it. ] 

The well is ten foot deep. The book were lost. 

Look at the oxes. Thou will better stop. 

This horse will let me ride on her. The horses was sold. 

I can stay this two hours. The boys was reading. 

I have two pen-knifes. I teaches him grammar. 

My lady has got his fan. He are not attentive to it. 

Two pair of ladies's gloves. Thou shall not go out. 

Henry the Eighth had six wifes. If I bees not at home. 

I saw the man which sings. Thou can do nothing for me. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 59 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

'* The following exercises in Parsing are arranged on a plan new and 
Important. 

Some of the most material points, and those that are apt to puzzle the 
pupil, have been selected, and made the subject of a set of Exercises. 
By this means, the same point must come so often under his eye, and be 
so often repeated, that it cannot fail to make a strong impression on his 
mind ; and even should he forget it, it will be easy to refresh his me- 
mory by turning to it again. 

To give full scope to the pupil's discriminating powers, the exercises 
contain all the parts of speech, promiscuously arranged, to be used thus. 

1. After the pupil has learned the definition of a noun, exercise him in 
going over any part of the exercises in parsing, and pointing out the nouns 
only. This will oblige him to exercise his powers of discrimination in 
distinguishing the nouns from the other words. 

2. After learning the definition of an adjective, exercise him in select- 
ing all the adjectives from the other words, and telling why they are 
adjectives. 

3. After getting all the pronouns very accurately by heart, let him point 
out them, in addition to the nouns and adjectives. 

4. Then the verb, without telling of what sort it is, or of what number, 
or person, cr mode, or tense, till he can distinguish it with great readiness. 

5. In the same way, after learning the definition of an adverb, preposi- 
tion, and conjunction, exercise him orally with short sentences containing 
adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, and then on those in the book. 

6. In the last course, after he has learned the rules of Syntax, he should 
go over the exercises again, and tell every thing about nouns and verbs, 

Explain to the pupil what parsing is ; — that it is describing the words 
in a sentence, telling of what sort, i. e. what part of speech each one is; 
what is its gender, number, mode, tense. &c. ; what other word it depends 
upon or is in any way connected with, and giving the rules at every step. 

In the Exercises on Parsing; the sentences on every page are numbered 
by small figures, to enable the reader to find out any sentence in the Key 
which he may wish to consult. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

No. 1. 

1. A good conscience and a contented mind will make a man 
happy. 2. Philosophy teaches us to endure afflictions, but Chris- 
tianity to enjoy them, by turnings them into blessings. 3. Virtue 
ennobles the mind, but vice debases it. 4. Application in the early 
period of life, will give happiness and ease to succeeding years. 
5. A good conscience fears nothing. 6. Devotion promotes and 
strengthens virtue; calms and regulates the temper; and fills the 
keartwith gratitude and praise. 7. Dissimulation degrades taleuts 



60 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

and learning, obscures the lustre of every accomplishment, and 
sinks us into universal contempt. 

8. If we lay no restraint upon our lusts, no control upon our 
appetites and passions, they will hurry us into guilt and misery. 
9. Discretion stamps a value upon all our other qualities ; it in- 
structs us to make use of them at proper times, and turn then 
honorably to our own advantage: it shows itself alike in all ou 
words and actions, and serves as an unerring guide in every occur- 
rence of life. 10. Shame and disappointment attend sloth and 
idleness. 11. Indolence undermines the foundation of every virtue, 
and unfits a man for the social duties of life. 

12. Knowledge gives ease to solitude, and gracefulness to re- 
tirement. 13. Gentleness ought to form our address, to regulate 
our speech, and to diffuse itself over our whole behavior. 1 4. Know- 
ledge makes our being pleasant to us, fills the mind with enter- 
taining views, and administers to it a perpetual series of gratifica- 
tions. 15. Meekness controls our angry passions; candor our 
severe judgments. 16. Perseverance in labor will surmount every 
difficulty. 17. He that takes pleasure in the prosperity of others, 
enjoys part of their good fortune. 18. Restlessness of mind dis- 
qualifies us both for the enjoyment of our peace, and the perform- 
ance of our duty. 19. Sadness contracts the mind ; mirth 
dilates it. 

20. We should subject our fancies to the government of reason. 
21. Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospects 
of many a youth. 22. Affluence may give us respect in the 
eyes of the vulgar ; but it will not recommend us to the wise and 
good. 23. Complaisance produces good nature and mutual bene- 
volence, encourages the timorous, and soothes the turbulent. 
24. A constant perseverance in the paths of virtue will gain 
respect. 25. Envy and wrath shorten life ; and anxiety bringeth* 
age before its time. 26. Bad habits require immediate reformation. 

No. 2. 

1. Economy is no disgrace: it is better to live on a little, than 
to outlive a great deal. 2. A virtuous education is a better inhe- 
ritance than a great estate. 3. Good and wise men only can be 
real friends. 4. Friendship can scarcely exist where virtue is not 
the foundation. 5. He that swells in prosperity, will shrink in 
adversity. 6. To despair in adversity, is madness. 7. From 

* In the solemn style, verbs have in the 3d pers. sing, of the nres. Indi- 
cative, the termination eth ; as, loveth, heareth; or, th; as, hath, doth. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 6l 

idleness arises neither pleasure nor advantage : we must flee there- 
fore from idleness, the certain parent of guilt and ruin. 

8. You must not always rely on promises. 9. The peace of 
society dependeth* on justice. 10. He that walketh* with wise men 
shall be wise. 11. He that sitteth* with the profane is foolish. 
12. The coach arrives daily. 13. The mail travels fast. 14. Rain 
falls in great abundance here. 15. He sleeps soundly. 16. She 
dances gracefully. 17. I went to London. 18. He lives soberly. 
19. He hurried to his house in the country. 20. They smiled. 
21. She laughed. 22. He that liveth* in pleasure is dead while 
he liveth.* 23. Nothing appears to be so low and mean as lying 
and dissimulation. 24. Vice is its own punishment, and virtue is 
its own reward. 25. Industry is the road to wealth, and virtue to 
happiness. 

No. 3. 

1. Virtue must be formed and supported by daily and repeated 
exertions. 2. You may be deprived of honor and riches against 
your will ; but not of virtue without your consent. 3. Virtue is 
connected with eminence in every liberal art. 4. Many are brought 
to ruin by extravagance and dissipation. 5. The best designs are 
often ruined by unnecessary delay. 6. All our recreations should 
be accompanied with virtue and innocence. 7. Almost all diffi- 
culties may be overcome by diligence. 8. Old friends are pre- 
served, and new ones are procured by a grateful disposition. 
9. Words are like arrows, and should not be shot at random. 

10. A desire to be thought learned often prevents our improve- 
ment. 11. Great merit is often concealed under the most unpro- 
mising appearances. 12. Some talents are buried in the earth, 
and others are properly employed. 13. Much mischief has often 
been pre vented by timely consideration. 14. True pleasure is 
only to be found in the paths of virtue ; and every deviation from 
them will be attended with pain. 15. Thaty friend is highly to 
be respected at all times, whose friendship is chiefly distinguished 
in adversity. 

16. There is not a more pleasing exercise of the mind than 
gratitude : it is accompanied with such an inward satisfaction, that 
the duty is sufficiently rewarded by the performance. 17. The 
mind should be stored with knowledge, and cultivated with care. 
18. A pardon was obtained for him from the king. 19. Our most 

* See Note on page 60. 

f Concerning that, see Obs. on page 17. 

6 



62 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

sanguine prospects have often been blasted. 20. Too sanguine 
hopes of any earthly thing should never be entertained. 21. The 
table of Dionysius the tyrant was loaded with delicacies of every 
kind, yet he could not eat. 22. 1 have long been taught, that the 
afflictions of this life are overpaid by that eternal weight of glory 
which awaits the virtuous. 

23. Greater virtue is required to bear good fortune than bad. 

24. Riches and honor have always been reserved for the good. 

25. King Alfred is said to have divided the day and night into 
three parts: eight hours were allotted to meals and sleep, eight 
were allotted to business and recreation, and eight to study and 
devotion. 26. All our actions should be regulated by religion and 
reason. 27. Honors, monuments, and all the works of vanity and 
ambition, are demolished and destroyed by time ; but the reputation 
of wisdom is transmitted to posterity. 28. These two things can- 
not be disjoined ; a pious life and a happy death. 

No. 4. 

1. Forget the faults of others, and remember your own. 2. Study 
universal rectitude, and cherish religious hope. 3. Suit your de- 
sires to things, and not things to your desires. 4. Cherish virtuous 
principles, and be ever steady in your conduct. 5. Practise humi- 
lity, and reject every thing in dress, carriage, or conversation, which 
has any appearance of pride. 6. Allow nothing to interrupt your 
public or private devotions, except the performance of some humane 
action. 

7. " Learn to contemn all praise betimes, 
For* flattery is the nurse of crimes." 
8. Consider yourself a citizen of the world ; and deem nothing 
which regards humanity unworthy of your notice. 9. Presume 
not in prosperity, and despair not in adversity. 10. Be kind and 
courteous to all, and be not eager to take offence without just 
reason. 11. Beware of ill customs; they creep upon us insi- 
diously, and by slow degrees. 

12. " O man, degenerate man, offend no more ! 

Gof learn of brutes, thy Maker to adore !" 

13. Let your religion^ connect preparation for heaven with an 

honorable discharge of the duties of acti ve life. 1 4. Let your words£ 

agree with your thoughts, and{ be followed by your actions. 

* See Note on for, page 57. 

f Go and learn are both in the imperative. 

X See Note page 63. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 63 

15. Let all your thoughts, words, and actions be tinctured* with 
humility, modesty, and candor. 16. Let him who wishes for an 
effectual cure for all the wounds the world can inflict,* retire from 
intercourse with men to intercourse with his Creator. 

17. Let no reproach make you* lay aside holiness; the frowns 
of the world are nothing to the smiles of heaven. 18. Let reason 
go before enterprise, and counsel before every action. 19. Hear 
I Ann read her lesson. 20. Bid her get it better. 21. You need 
not hear her again. 22. I perceive her weep. 23. I feel it pain 
me. 24. I dare not go. 25. You behold him run. 26. We 
observed him walk off hastily. 

27. And that tongue of his, that bade the Romans 
Mark* him, and write his speeches in their books, 
Alas ! it cried — give me some drink, Titinius. 
28. Deal with another as you'd have 
Another* deal with you ; 
What you're unwilling to receive, 
Be sure you never do. 
29. Abstain from pleasure and bear evil. 30. Expect the same 
filial duty from your children which you paid to your parents. 

No. 5. 

Do, did, and have, are auxiliary verbs when joined to another verb ; when 
t not joined to another verb, they are principal verbs, and have auxiliaries 
like the verb to love. 

1 . He who does not perform what he has promised is a traitor 
to his friend. 2. Earthly happiness does not flow from riches; 
but from content of mind, health of body, and a life of piety and 
virtue. 3. Examples do not authorise a fault. 4. If we do not 
study the Scriptures, they will never make us wise. 5. The butler 
did not remember Joseph. 6. You did not get enough time to 
prepare your lessons. 7. Did you see my bookl 8. Do you go 
to-morrow? 9. I do not think it proper to play too long. 10. Did 
he deceive you? 11. He did deceive me. 12. I do not hate my 
enemies. 13. Wisdom does not make a man proud. j 

14. He who does the most good,-)- has the most pleasure. 

* The next verb after bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, perceive, 
behold, observe, have, and know, is in the Infinitive, having to understood ; 
ras, " The tempest-loving raven scarce dares (to) icing the dubious dusk." — 
I have known him (to) divert the money, &c. To is often used after the 
compound tenses of these verbs ; as, Who dare to advance, if I say — stop ? 
Them did he make to pay tribute. 

f Have, hast, has, hath, had, and hadst, are auxiliaries only when they 
have the Indef. Pass. Participle of another verb after them. 



64 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

15, Instead of adding to the afflictions of others, do whatever you 
can to alleviate them. 16. If ye do these things, ye shall never 
fall. 17. If thou canst do any thing, have compassion on us, and 
help us. 18. He did his work well. 19. Did he do his work 
well] 20. Did you do what I requested you to do ] 21. Deceit 
betrays a littleness of mind, and is the resource of one who has 
not courage to avow his failings. 22. We have no bread. 

No. 6. 

The verb to be has very often an adjective after it; and some adjectives 
seem so closely combined with it, as to lead the pupil to suppose that 
it is a passive verb. 

1. Prudence and moderation are productive of true peace and 
comfort. 2. If the powers of reflection were cultivated* by habit, 
mankind would at all times be able to derive pleasure from their 
own breasts, as rational as it is exalted. 3. Learning is preferable 
to riches ; but virtue is preferable to both. 4. He who rests on a 
principle within, is incapable of betraying his trust, or deserting 
his friend. 5. Saul was afraid of David. 6. And the men were 
afraid. 7. One would have thought she should have been con- 
tented. 

8. Few things are impracticable in themselves. 9. To study 
without intermission is impossible: relaxation is necessary; but 
it should be moderate. 10. The Athenians were conceited on 
account of their own wit, science, and politeness. 11. We are 
indebted to our ancestors for our civil and religious liberty. 12. Many 
things are worth inquiry to one man, which are not so to another. 
13. An idle person is a kind of monster in the creation, because 
all nature is busy about him. 14. Impress your minds with 
reverence for all that is sacred. 15. He was unfortunate, because 
he was inconsiderate. 16. She is conscious of her deficiency, and 
will therefore be busy. 17. I am ashamed of you. 18. She is 
sadly forlorn. 

I No. 7. 

f What is equal to — that which — or the thing tohich. 

1. Regard the quality, rather than the quantity of what you 
read. 2. If we delay till to-morrow what ought to be done to-day, 
we overcharge the to-morrow with a burden which belongs not to 

* Were cultivated, a passive verb. 

fit represents two cases; — sometimes two nominatives; — sometimes 
two objectives; — sometimes a nominative and an objective ;— and some- 
times an .objective and a nominative.— Sometimes it is an adjective. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 65 

it. 3. Choose what is most fit: custom will make it the most 
agreeable. 4. Foolish men are more apt to consider what they 
have lost, than what they possess, and to turn their eyes on those 
who are richer than themselves, rather than on those who are 
under greater difficulties. 

5. What cannot be mended or prevented, must be endured. 
6. Be attentive to what you are about, and take pains to do it 
well. 7. What you do not hear to-day, you will not tell to-mor- 
row. 8. Mark Antony, when under adverse circumstances, made 
this interesting remark : " I have lost all. except what I gave away." 

9. Mark what it is his mind aims at in the question, and not what* 
words he utters. 

10. By what means shall I obtain wisdom? 
See what* a grace was seated on his brow ! 

No. 8. 

The compound relatives, — whoever and whosoever — are equal to — he who, 

or, any one who. 
% Whatever and whatsoever are equal to — the thing which. 

1. Whatever gives pain to others, deserves not the name of plea- 
sure. 2. Whoever lives under an habitual sense of the Divine 
presence, keeps up a perpetual cheerfulness of temper. 3. What- 
soever is set before you, eat. 4. Aspire after perfection inf what- 
ever state of life you choose. 5. Whoever is not content in poverty, 
would not be so in plenty ; for the fault is not in the thing, but in 
the mind. 6. Whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well. 

7. j By whatever arts you may at first attract the attention, you 
can hold the esteem, and secure the hearts of others, only by 
amiable dispositions, and the accomplishments of the mind. 
8. Whatever delight, or whatever solace is granted by the celestials 
to soften our fatigues — in thy presence, O Health, thou parent of 
happiness ! all those joys spread out and flourish. 9. ■(■ Whatever 
your situation in life may be, nothing is more necessary to your 
success, than the acquirement of virtuous dispositions and habits. 

10. j- Whatever be the motive of insult, it is always best to over- 
look it, and revenge it in no circumstances whatever. 

* What here, and generally in questions, is an adjective, like many in 
"many a flower." — Sometimes it is an interjection ; as, What! 

What is sometimes used as an adverb for partly ; thus, What with think- 
ing, what with writing, and what with reading, I am weary. 

f Some may prefer to say that whatever is an adjective here, for it quali- 
ties arts, &c; and where no noun is after it, it agrees with thing- understood. 
Thus. Whatever may be the motive, &c, that is, Whatever thing may be., 

$ They represent two cases like what, as on page 64. 

6* 



66 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

No. 9. 

Active and Neuter verbs are often conjugated with their Present Partici- 
ple, joined to the verb to be.* 

1. While I am reading, you should be listening to what I 
read. 2. He was delivering his speech when I left the house. 
3. They have been writing on botany. 4. He might have been 
rising to eminence. 5. I have been writing a letter, and I am just 
going to send it away. 6. She was walking by herself when I 
met her. 7. We are perishing with hunger ; I am willing there- 
fore to surrender. 8. We should always be learning. 9. A good 
man is always studying to be better. 10. We were hearing a 
sermon yesterday. 

No. 10. 

I. The poets often use an adjective as a noun, and sometimes join an adjec- 
tive to their new-made noun. 

II. They sometimes improperly use an adjective for an adverb. 

1. And where He vital breathes there must be joy. 

Who shall attempt with wandering feet 

The dark, unbottomed, infinite abyss, 

And through the palpable obscure find out 

His uncouth way, or spread his airy flight, 

Upborne with indefatigable wings, 

Over the vast abrupt, e'er he arrivej- 

The happy isle 1 Paradise Lost, b. ii. 404. 

2. Thus Adam his illustrious guest besought : 
And thus the god-like angel answered mild. 
The lovely young Lavinia once had friends, 
And fortune smiled deceitful on her birth. 
When even at last the solemn hour shall come 
To wing my mystic flight to future worlds, 

I cheerful will obey ; there, with new powers, 

Will rising wonders sing. 

The rapid radiance instantaneous strikes 

The illumined mountain. Gradual sinks the breeze 

Into a perfect calm. 

Each animal, conscious of some danger, fled 

Precipitate the loathed abode of man. 

* Many words both in fog and ed are mere adjectives. 

f The poets often omit the preposition. It should be, " E'er he arrive 
at the happy isle." And again, "Here he had need all circumspection," 
for, need o/all circumspection. 



SYNTAX. 

Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats of the 
proper arrangement, connection, and dependence of 
words in a sentence.* 

A sentence is an assemblage of words making com- 
plete sense : as, John is happy. 

Sentences are either simple or compound. 

A simple sentence contains but one subject and one 
finite t verb ; as, Life is short. 

A compound sentence contains two or more simple 
sentences connected by one or more conjunctions ; as, 
Time is short, but eternity is long. 

A phrase is two or more words used to express a 
certain relation between ideas, without affirming any- 
thing ; as, In truth ; To be plain with you. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the 
subject, the verb, and the object. % 



* Syntax principally consists of two parts, Agreement or Concord and 
Government. 

Agreement is the correspondence which one word has to another, in 
number, gender, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one part of speech has over another, 
in determining its mode, tense, number, person or case. 

One word is said to depend upon another, when its mode, tense, num- 
ber, person, or case is determined by that word. 

One word is said to belong to another when it is closely connected with 
it in grammatical construction. 

f Finite verbs are those to which number and person belong. The 
Infinitive mode has no respect to number or person. 

% See page 15. 

67 



68 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

Rule I. A verb must agree with its nominative in 
number and person;* as, Thou reddest; He reads; 
We read. 

EXERCISES. 

I love reading. A soft answer turns away wrath. We are but 
of yesterday and know nothing. Thou shalt not follow a multitude 
to do evil. The days of man are but as grass. All things are 
naked and open to the eyes of him with whom we have to do. All 
things were created by him. In him we live and move. Frequent 
commission of crimes hardens his heart. In our earliest youth the 
contagion of manners is observable. The pyramids of Egypt have 
stood more than three thousand years. The number of our days 
is with thee. A judicious arrangement of studies facilitates im- 
provement. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. A few pangs of 
conscience now and then interrupts his pleasure, and whispers to 
him that he once had better thoughts. There is more cultivators 
of the earth than of their own hearts. Nothing but vain and fool- 
ish pursuits delight some persons. Not one of those whom thou 
sees clothed in purple are happy. There's two or three of us who 
have seen the work. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The subject of the verb should be in the nominative; thus, 
Him and her were married, should be, He and she were married. 

Correct these Examples. — Him and her were of the same age. 
Him and me are going to school. 

2. The Nominative!, though generally placed before the verb, is often 
placed after it; especially when the sentence begins with Here, there, 
&c, or when if or though is understood ; and when a question is asked. 

Among the many enemies of friendship may be reckoned 
suspicion and disgust. Among the great blessings and wonders 
of the creation, may be classed the regularities of times and seasons. 

* When the nominative is connected with a pronoun, thus, /, the Presi- 
dent of the United States; We, the pupils of this school, the verb is of the 
same person as the pronoun; but when the noun stands alone, as, The 
boy runs, the verb is in the third person. 

f The noun, which is the subject of the verb, is in the Nominative case, 
(see page 15,) and is therefore often called the Nominative to the Verb; 
the teacher may at pleasure direct the pupil to call it the Nominative, of 
the Subject, or the Subject-Nominative. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX, 69 

Then were they in great fear. Here stands the oak. And 
there sat in a window a certain young man, named Eutychus. 
Then shall thy light break forth as the morning. Then shalt thou 
see clearly. Where is thy brother 1 Is he at home 1 

There are delivered in the Holy Scriptures many weighty argu- 
ments for this doctrine. Were he at leisure, I would wait 
upon him. Had he been more prudent, he would have been 
more fortunate. Were they wise, they would read the Scrip- 
tures daily. I would give more to the poor, were I able. 
Could we survey the chambers of sickness and distress, we should 
often find them peopled with the victims of intemperance, sensuality, 
indolence, and sloth. Were he to assert it, I would not believe 
it, because he told a lie before. Gaming is a vice pregnant 
with every evil ; and to it are often sacrificed wealth, happiness, 
and every thing virtuous and valuable. Is not industry the 
road to wealth, and virtue to happiness 1 

3. The nominative is often at a great distance from the verb. 

That man who is neither elated by success, nor dejected by 
disappointment, whose conduct is not influenced by any change 
of circumstances to deviate from the line of integrity, possesses true 
fortitude of mind. That fortitude which has encountered no 
dangers, that prudence which has surmounted no difficulties, that 
integrity which has been attacked by no temptations, — can at best 
be considered but as gold, not yet brought to the test, of which, 
therefore, the true value cannot be assigned. 

The man who retires to meditate mischief, and to exasperate 
his own rage; whose thoughts are employed only on means of dis- 
tress, and contrivances of ruin ; whose mind never pauses from 
the remembrance of his own sufferings, but to indulge some hope 
of enjoying the calamities of another ; — may justly be numbered 
among the most miserable of human beings; among those who are 
guilty without reward ; who have neither the gladness of prosperity, 
nor the calm of innocence. He whose constant employment is 
detraction and censure ; who looks only to find faults, and speaks 
only to publish them ; will be dreaded, hated, and avoided. 

He who through vast immensity can pierce, 

See worlds on worlds compose one universe, , 

Observe how system into system runs, 

What other planets circle other suns, 

What varied beings people every star, 

May tell why Heaven has made us as we are. 



70 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

Rule II. The infinitive mode, or a part of a sen- 
tence, is often the nominative to a verb ; as, To play 
is pleasant. 

EXERCISES. 

To be ashamed of the practice of precepts which the heart 
approves and embraces, from a fear of the censure of the world,* 
marks a feeble and imperfect character. To endure misfortune 
with resignation, and bear it with fortitude, is the striking cha- 
racteristic of a great mind. To rejoice in the welfare of our 
fellow creatures, is, in a degree, to partake of their good fortune ; 
but to repine at their prosperity, is one of the most despicable traits 
of a narrow mind. 

To be ever active in laudable pursuits, is the distinguishing 
characteristic of a man of merit. To satisfy all his demands, is 
the way to make your child truly miserable. To practise virtue, 
is the sure way to love it. To be at once merry and malicious, 
is the sign of a corrupt heart and a weak understanding. To 
bear adversity well is difficult, but to be temperate in prosperity is 
the' height of wisdom. To advise the ignorant, relieve the 
needy, and comfort the afflicted,-)- are duties that fall in our way, 
almost every day of our lives. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

To be carnally minded are death, but to be spiritually minded 
are life and peace. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are 
required of all men. That warm climates should accelerate the 
growth of the human body and shorten its duration are very rea- 
sonable to believe. To be temperate in eating and drinking, to 
use exercise in the open air, and to preserve the mind from 
tumultuous emotions, is the best preservatives of health. That it 
is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and bodies, to be 
just and kind to our fellow creatures, and to be pious and faithful 
to him who made us, admit not of any doubt in a rational and 
well informed mind. 

Rule III. Two or more nominatives in the singu- 
lar, connected by and, require a verb or pronoun in 

* When nothing but an infinitive precedes the verb, then it is the infi- 
nitive that is the subject of it ; as, To play is pleasant. But when the infi- 
nitive has any adjuncts, as in the sentence, To drink poison is death, it is the 
part of a sentence ; for it is not to drink\h&t is death, but to drink poison. 

f Two or more infinitives require a verb in the plural. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 71 

the plural; as, James and John are good boys ; for 
they are busy.* 

Two or more nominatives in the singular, separated 
by or or nor, require a verb or pronoun in the singu- 
lar ; as, James or John is sick.] 

EXERCISES. 

Mary and Ann are not at home. James and his brother are 
cold. She and her father were in the garden yesterday. He and 
I are going to town. Religion and virtue give dignity to human 
nature. Love and esteem are the first principles of friendship. 
Fame and reputation are things he will not court, but will deserve. 
Socrates and Plato were the most eminent philosophers of Greece. 
The rich and poor meet together. Life and death are in the power 
of the tongue. The time and place for the conference were agreed 
on. Idleness and ignorance are the parent of many vices. John 
and I read better than you. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Wisdom, virtue, and happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 
Luxurious living and high pleasures begets a languor and satiety 
that destroys all enjoyment. Out of the same mouth proceedeth 
blessing and cursing. John and James is here. Mary and her 
cousin has come. John and Thomas says he intends to study 
Latin. Neither he nor his brother were there. Either he or James 
are going. Neither she nor her sister have been there. He knows 
not what spleen, languor, or listlessness are. Neither precept nor 
discipline are so forcible as example. Either the boy or the girl were 
present. Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood. The 
modest virgin, the prudent wife, or the careful matron, are much 
more serviceable in life than petticoated philosophers. It must be 
confessed that a lampoon or a satire does not carry in them robbery 
or murder. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, 
which moves merely as they are moved. Man's happiness or 
misery are, in a great measure, put in his own hands. When 

* And is the only conjunction that combines the agency of two or more 
into one; for. as well as, never does that; but merely states a sort of com- 
parison ; thus, '• Caesar, as well as Cicero, was eloquent." — With is some 
times used for and. 

t Or and nor are the only conjunctions applicable to this rule. 
These rules apply also to infinitives, when used as nominatives to 
verbs. 



72 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune affect us, the sincerity of 
friendship is proved. I, or thou, or he are the author of it. 

Rule IV. When a noun of multitude conveys 
unity of idea, the verb and pronoun should be singu- 
lar ; as, The class was large.* 

When a noun of multitude conveys plurality of idea, 
the verb and pronoun should be plural ; as, My people 
do not consider ; they have not known me. 

EXERCISES. 

The people is dispersed. Every class was busy by itself. The 
army consists of sixty thousand men. The poor people go bare- 
foot. The crowd quarreled among themselves. There is no 
people careless of its own defence. Mankind are naturally jealous 
of their rights. The meeting was well attended. The people 
have no opinion of their own. Send the multitude away, that 
they may go and buy themselves bread. The people were very 
numerous. The council were not unanimous. The flock, and not 
the fleece, is, or ought to be, the object of the shepherd's care. 
When the nation complains, the rulers should listen to its voice. 
The regiment consists of a thousand men. The multitude eagerly 
pursue pleasure as their chief good. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The parliament are dissolved. The fleet were seen sailing up 
the channel. Why do this generation seek after a sign 1 The 
shoal of herrings were immense. The remnant of the people were 
persecuted. The committee was divided in its sentiments. The 
army are marching to Cadiz. Some people is busy, and yet does 
very little. Never were any nation so infatuated. But this people 
who knoweth not the law are cursed. The people rejoices in that 
which should give it sorrow. The fleet is all arrived, and is moored 
in safety. When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to 
their voice. The fleet were seen sailing up the bay. 

* A noun of multitude is a noun that denotes many individuals ; thus, 
class and crew are nouns of multitude, because there are many scholars 
in a class and many sailors in a crew. 

A noon of multitude conveys unity of idea, when all the individuals 
which it denotes are considered together: when we say, The class is large, 
the noun of multitude, class, conveys unity of idea, because we mean that 
all the scholars together make a large class 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 73 

A noun of multitude conveys plurality of idea, when all ihe individuals 
which it denotes are considered separately : when we say, The crew were 
all sick, the noun of multitude, crew, conveys plurality of idea, because 
we mean that every one of the crew was sick. 

Rule V. When singular nominatives of different 
persons are separated by or or nor, the verb agrees 
with the person next it ; as, Hither thou or I am in 
fault ; I, or thou, or he, is the author of it:* 

EXERCISES. 
Either I or thou art greatly mistaken. He or I am sure of this 
week's prize. Either Thomas or thou hast spilt the ink on my 
paper. John or I have done it. He or thou art the person who 
must go to London on that business. Either he or I am going. 
Either I or you are to blame. I, or thou, or he, is the author of it. 
George or I am the person. Either you or I am greatly mistaken 
in our opinion on this subject. I or you are the person who must 
undertake the business proposed. 

Rule VI. A singular and a plural nominative, 
separated by or or nor, require a verb in the plural ; 
as, Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved A 

The plural nominative should be placed next the verb. 

EXERCISES. 

Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him. He or they 
were offended at it. Whether one or more were concerned in the 
business, does not yet appear. The cares of this life, or the deceit- 
fulness of riches, have choked the seeds of virtue in many a pro- 
mising mind. Neither the king nor his ministers deserve to be 
praised. Either she or her sisters were commended. Whether he 
or they were present is uncertain. 

Obs. 1. — When the verb to be stands between a singular and 
a plural nominative, it agrees with the one next it, or with the one 
which is more naturally the subject of it; as, " The wages of sin 
is death" 

* The verb, though expressed only to the last person, is understood in 
its proper person to each of the rest, and the sentence when the ellipsis ia 
lupplied stands thus, "Either thou art in fault, or I am in fault. 

f The same observation may be made respecting the manner of supply- 
ing the ellipsis under this rule, that was made respecting the last. A par- 
donable love of brevity is the cause of the ellipsis in both. 

7 



74 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

A great cause of the low state of industry was the restraints put 
upon it. His meat was locusts and wild honey. His chief occu- 
pation and enjoyment was controversy. Reading and writing were 
his chief occupation. Locusts and wild honey were his meat. A 
feeble, a harsh, or an obscure style is always faulty. 

Obs. 2. — When a pronoun refers to two words of different per- 
sons, coupled with and, it becomes plural, and agrees with the first 
person when / or we is mentioned ; and with the second, when 1 
or we is not mentioned ; as, "John and I will lend you our books." 
"James and yon have got your lessons." 

Thou and he shared it between you. James and I are attentive 
to our studies. You and he are diligent in reading your books, 
therefore you are good boys. He and I attend to our business. 
James and you have got your lessons. He and you honor your 
parents. 

Rule VII. .An active verb has an objective case 
depending upon it, either expressed or understood ; as. 
We love him; he loves us. 

EXERCISES. 

You love me. We can find her. I will follow thee. You 
must not follow me. I must reprove her. She loves you not. 
He loves us* Him and them we know, but who art thou'? 
Her that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. You only have 
I known. Let you and me the battle try. Him who committed 
the offence thou shouldst correct, not me who am innocent. 
Esteeming themselves wise, they became fools. Upon seeing me 
he turned pale. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

She loves he. He mistook we for them. It hurt they very 
much. They that sin rebuke before all. They that help me 
I will reward. He was attached to those who he thought true to 
his party. Having exposed hisseif too much to the fire of the 
enemy, he soon lost an arm in the action. 

The man who he raised from obscurity is dead. Who did they 
entertain so freely l . They are the persons who we ought to 
respect. Who having not seen we love. They who opulence has 
made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, are not happy. 

Obs. 1. — The participle being a part of the verb, can have an 
objective after it. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 75 

Exposing himself to danger. Loving a friend. Having eaten 
the fruit, he was taken sick. 

Obs. 2. — Neuter verbs do not admit of an objective after them. 
Correct these Examples. 

It will be very difficult to agree his conduct with the principles 
he professes. Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea. 

Obs. 3. — Active verbs do not admit of a preposition after them. 
Correct these Examples. 

I shall premise with two or three general observations. He 
ingratiates with some by traducing others. 

Obs. 4. — The objective after an active verb, especially when a 
relative, is often understood. 

He that moderates his desires, enjoys the best happiness this 
world can afford. Few reflections are more distressing than 
those we make on our own ingratitude. The more true merit 
a man has, the more does he applaud it in others. It is not 
easy to love those we do not esteem. Our good or bad fortune 
depends on the choice we make of our friends. An over cautious 
attention to avoid evils often brings them upon us ; and we fre- 
quently run headlong into misfortunes by the very means we pursue 
to avoid them. He eats regularly, drinks moderately, and reads 
often. She sees and hears distinctly, but she cannot write. 
Let him labor with his hands, that he may have to give to him 
that needeth. 

Obs. 5. — The objective generally comes after the verb on which 
it depends ; but when a relative, and in some other cases, it comes 
before it. 

Me ye have bereaved of my children. Them that honor 
me I will honor. Him whom ye ignorantly worship declare I 
unto you. Them that were entering in ye hindered. Me 
he restored to mine* office, and him he hanged. Those who 
have labored to make us wise and good, are the persons whom we 
ought particularly to love and respect. The cultivation of taste 
is recommended by the happy effects which it naturally tends to 
produce on human life. These curiosities we have imported 
from China. 

Obs. 6. — The verbs To tell, to give, to teach, and some others, 
take after them two objectives, the one of a person, the other of a 
thing. 

* Mine, used here for my, as thine is for thy. 



76 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

And he gave him tithes of all. Who gave thee this authority 1 
Ye gave me meat. He gave them bread from heaven. Give me 
understanding. Give me thine* heart. \ Friend, lend me three 
loaves. Sell me thy birth-right. Sell me meat for money. I will 
send you corn. Tell me thy name. He taught me grammar. If 
thy brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault 
between thee and him alone. Bring me a candle. Get him a pen. 
Write him a letter. Tell me nothing but the truth. 

Obs. 7. — Part of a sentence is often used as the objective after 
a verb. 

You will soon find that the world does not perform what it pro- 
mises. Did I not tell you that you would bring him to ruin. Do 
all that I command you. Hear what I say to you. 

Obs. 8. — Some passive verbs admit of an objective after them; 
as, John was first denied apples, then he was promised them, then 
he was offered them. 

Rule VIII. A verb in the infinitive mode depends 
upon another verb, or upon an adjective, participle, 
noun, or pronoun ; as, Forget not to do good. Worthy 
to be loved. He has a desire to learn. 

To, the sign of the infinitive, is not often used after 
the verbs, bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, 
perceive, behold, observe, have, and know.i 

EXERCISES. 

Strive to learn. They obliged him to do it. Newton did not 
wish to obtrude his discoveries on the public. His penetration and 
diligence seemed to vie with each other. Milton cannot be said to 
have contrived the structure of an epic poem. Let him read all the 
lesson. The clergyman observing some people sleep at church, 
reproved them. I beheld him walk. You need not run. Endea- 
voring to persuade. We ought to forgive injuries. They need 

* See the Note on the preceding page. 

f Friend is the nominative. Supply the ellipsis thus, O thou who art 
my friend, lend me, &c. 

X To is generally used after the passive of these verbs, except let ; as, 
He icas made to believe it ; He was let go ; and sometimes after the active, 
in the past tense, especially of have, a principal verb; as, I had to walk all 
the way. See p. 63, 

The infinitive is often independent of the rest of the sentence; as, To 
proceed; To confess the truth, I was in fault. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 77 

not call upon her. I dare not proceed so hastily. I have seen 
some young persons conduct themselves very discreetly. He bade 
me go home. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Cease do evil. Learn do well. I bade him to read distinctly. 
They dare not to trust him. We have heard him to sing. It is 
the difference of their conduct which makes us to approve the one, 
and to reject the other. We heard the thunder to roll. It is a 
great support to virtue, when we see a good mind to maintain its 
patience and tranquillity under injuries and afflictions, and to cor- 
dially forgive its oppressors. Let me to do that. I bid my servant 
to do this, and he doeth it. I need not to solicit him to do a kind 
office. 

Rule^ IX. Neuter and passive verbs often have a 
noun or pronoun coming after them, corresponding to 
the subject* before them, referring to the same person 
or thing, and in the same case; as, The man is a 
rogue. That lady is my teacher. I believe him to 
be a minister. 

EXERCISES. 

It was I who wrote the letter. Be not afraid, it is I. It was 
not I. It was he who got the first prize. I am sure it was not we 
that did it. It was they who gave us ail this trouble. I would not 
act the same part again, if I were he. He so much resembled his 
brother, that at first sight I took it to be him. Search the Scrip- 
tures; for in them ye think ye have eternal life; and they are they 
which testify of me. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

I am her. Thou art him. If I were him. If it were them. It 
{s me. We took you to be he. Whom is she. It was him and 
her that spoke evil of me. I suppose it was them who called. If 
it was not him, whom could it be] I saw one whom I took to be 
she. Let him be whom he may, I am not afraid of him. Who 
do you think him to be 1 Whom do men say that I am 1 She is 
the person who I understood it to have been. Whom think ye 
that I am 1 Was it me that said so 1 I am certain it was not 
him. I believe it to have been they. It might have been him. 

* See page 15. 

7* 



78 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

It is impossible to be them. It was either him or his brother that 
gained the first prize. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The infinitive mode, or a part of a sentence, may be the case 
before or after the verb, or both ; as, His maxim was, Be master 
of your anger : here the words his maxim is the nominative before 
was, and be master of your anger, is nominative after. 

2. The pupil may call one of these cases the nominative or objective 
before the verb, and the other the nominative or objective after the 
verb. Thus, in the sentence, The man is a rogue, man is the 
nominative before the verb, and rogue is the nominative after the 
verb. 

3. At the beginning of a sentence we often place here or there be- 
fore the verb, instead of its proper subject: thus, There are mere 
cultivators of the earth than of their own hearts. Here are two 
of us who have seen him. It is an elegant idiom, and probably 
originated in the use of the hand in pointing. 

Rule X. A noun or pronoun annexed to another 
noun or pronoun, denoting the same person or thing", 
is put in the same case ; as, Paul the apostle ; David 
the king. 

The nouns or pronouns are said to be in apposition. 

EXERCISES. 
Solomon the son of David, the king of Israel, wrote many pro- 
verbs. Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity. Ye 
eagles, playmates of the blast. Pompey fought with Caisar, the 
greatest general of his time. It was John, he who preached re- 
pentance. Adams and Jefferson, they who died on the 4th of July, 
were both signers and firm supporters of the declaration of Inde- 
pendence. And they were all baptized of him in the river Jordan. 

Rule XL The possessive case depends upon the 
noun which expresses the thing possessed ; as, John's 
book; his heart. 

EXERCISES. 
Pompey's pillar. Virtue's reward. A man's manners frequently 
influence his fortune. Asa's heart was perfect with the Lord. A 
mother's tenderness and a father's care, are nature's gifts for man's 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 79 

advantage. Helen's beauty was the cause of Troy's destruction. 
Wisdom's precepts are the good man's delight. 

Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. 
He asked his father's, as well as his mother's advice. 

Jesus' feet. Moses' rod. Herodias'* sake. Righteousness' 
sake. For conscience' sake. 

Rule XII. Adjectives belong to the nouns and pro- 
nouns, which they qualify or describe ;t as, A good 
boy ; a sweet peach. 

EXERCISES. 

He is a good man. This apple is ripest. The bad boy will be 
punished. Every boy must study well if he would be a wise man. 
The cloth was woven of the finest wool. It is an invariable law 
of our present condition, that every pleasure which is pursued to 
excess is converted into poison. All float on the surface of a river, 
which, with a swift current, is running to the boundless ocean. 

Obs. I. — Though the adjective generally comes before the noun, 
it is sometimes placed after it. 

But I lose myself in him, in light ineffable. 

Pure serenity apace 

Induces thought and contemplation still. 
Obs. 2. — A noun is always understood, when not expressed, 
after adjectives, such as, few, many, this, that, all, each, every, 
either. 

* To prevent too much of the hissing sound, the s after the apostrophe 
is generally omitted when the first noun has an s in each of its two last 
syllables, and the second noun begins with s, as, Righteousness* sake, For 
conscience' sake, Francis' sake. 

It has lately become common, when the nominative singular ends in s, 
or ss, to form the possessive by omitting the s after the apostrophe; as, 
James' book. Miss' shoes, instead of James's book, Miss's shoes. This is 
improper. Put these phrases into questions, and then they will appear 
ridiculous. Is this book James' ? Are these shoes Miss'? Nor are they 
less ridiculous without the interrogatory form; as. This book is James* 
&c— K. 26, 27, 146, 147. 

We sometimes use of instead of the apostrophe and s; thus we say, The 
wisdom of Socrates, rather than Socrates's wisdom. In some instances 
we use the o/and the possessive termination too ; as, It is a discovery of 
Sir Isaac Newton's, that is, one of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries. A 
picture of my friend, means a portrait of him : but a picture of my friend's 
means a portrait of some other person, and that it belongs to my friend. 

f Participles, like adje- tives, belong to the nouns or pronouns which 
they describe ; as, The filing clouds. 



80 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

Those only are truly great who are really good. Few set a 
proper value on their time. Those who despise the admonitions 
of their friends, deserve the mischiefs which their own obstinacy 
brings upon them. Among the many social virtues which attend 
the practice of true religion, that of a strict adherence to truth is 
of the greatest importance. Love no interests but those of truth 
and virtue. Such as are diligent will be rewarded. I saw a thou- 
sand. Of all prodigality, that of time is the worst. Some are 
naturally timid ; and some bold and active ; for all are not alike. 

Oas. 3. — The adjectives each, every, either, neither, belong to 
nouns of the singular number only ; as, Each of his brothers is in 
a favorable situation ; Evert/ man is accountable for himself; Either 
of them is good enough.* 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Let each esteem others better than themselves. Every one of 
the letters bear date after his banishment. Each of them, in their 
turn, receive the benefits to which they are entitled. Every person, 
whatever be their station, are bound by the duties of morality and 
religion. Neither of those men seem to have any idea that their 
opinions may be ill-founded. By discussing what relates to each 
particular in their order, we shall better understand the subject. 
Are either of these men your friend 1 

f And Jonathan the son of Shimeah, slew a man of great stature, 
who had on every hand six fingers, annJ. on every foot six toes. 

+ Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them his 
censer. The king of Israel and the king of Judah, sat either of 
them on his throne. 



Kule XIII. Pronouns agree in gender, number, 



* Each relates to two or more objects, and signifies both of the two, or 
every one of any number taken singly. 

f Every relates to more than two objects, and signifies each one of them 
all taken individually. It is quite correct to say, Every six miles, &c. 

Either signifies the one or the other, but not both. Neither imports not 
either. 

X Either is sometimes improperly used instead of each; as, On either side 
of the river was there the tree of life : instead of, on each side of the river. 

Whole should never be joined to common nouns in the plural; thus, 
Almost the whole inhabitants were present ; should be, Almost all the in- 
habitants; but it may b« joined to collective nouns in the plural; thus, 
Whole cities were swallowed up by the earthquake. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 81 

and person, with the nouns for which they stand ; as, 
John is here ; he came an hour ago. Every tree is 
known by its fruit. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

John is a good boy, she does what is right. James loves her 
master. That boy forgot her book. Jane and Ann are naughty, 
for she are disobedient. Answer not a fool according to her folly. 
A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty ; but a fool's wrath is 
heavier than it both. Take handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and 
let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh ; and 
it shall become small dust. Can any person, on their entrance into 
life, be fully secure that they shall not be deceived ] The mind 
of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the activity 
of his thoughts. 

Rule XIV. The relative agrees with its antecedent 
in gender, number, and person; as, Thou who readest ; 
The book which was lost. 

exercises to be corrected. 

A boy which is diligent will improve. He has got the place at 
whom he aimed. He is a wise man which speaks little. You see 
the low estate to whom I am reduced. I love the master which 
taught me. Those which seek Wisdom will certainly find her. 
This is the friend which I love. That is the vice whom I hate. 
This moon who rose last night. Blessed is the man which walketh 
in wisdom's ways. Thou who has been a witness of the fact, can 
give an account of it. The child which* was lost is found, j- The 
tiger is a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. Who of those 
men came to his assistance ] 



* It is difficult to see why it is harsh or improper, as Mr. Murray says, 
to apply who to children, because they have little reason and reflection; 
but if it is, at what age should we lay aside which and apply who to them? 
That seems preferable to either. In our translation of the Bible, who and 
that are both applied to children, but never which. See 2 Sam. xii. 14, 15. 
Matt. ii. lb. Rev. xii. 5. 

i Which is applied to inferior animals, and also to persons in asking 
questions. 

There seems to be no satisfactory reason for preferring that to who after 
same and all, except usage. There is indeed as good authority for using 
u-ho after all, as for using that. Addison, for instance, uses all who several 
times in one paper. 



S2 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
That is used instead of Who or Which. 

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree, — after the words 
Same and All, and often after Some and Any. 

2. When the antecedent consists of two nouns, the one requiring 
Who, and the other Which ; as, The man and the horse that we 
saw yesterday. 

3. After the interrogative Who ; as, Who that has any sense 
of religion would have argued thus ] 

Correct these Examples, 
It is the best which can be got. Solomon was the wisest man 
whom ever the world saw. It is the same picture which you saw 
before. And all which beauty, all which wealth e'er gave, &c. 
The lady and lap-dog which we saw at the window. Some village 
Hampden, which, with dauntless breast. He is the worst scholar 
whom I ever saw. This is the same book which you had yester- 
day. We met the man which we saw on Monday. Who, who 
can acquire knowledge would neglect it 1 

Rule XV. When the relative is preceded by two 
antecedents of different persons, it and the verb gene- 
rally agree in person with the last ; as, Thou art the 
boy that was late yesterday * 

EXERCISES. 

I am the man who commands you. I am the person who adopts 
that sentiment, and maintains it. Thou art a pupil who possesses 
a bright mind, but who has cultivated it but little. I am a man 
who speaks but seldom. Thou art the friend that has often relieved 
me, and that has not deserted me now in the time of peculiar need. 
Thou art he who driedst up the Red Sea before thy people IsraeLj- 



• 



* Sometimes the relative agrees with the former antecedent; as, I am 
verily a man who am a Jew. Acts xxii. 3. 

The propriety of this rule has been called in question, because the rela- 
tive should agree with the subject of the verb, whether the subject is 
next the relative or not. This is true, but it is also true that the subject 
is generally next the relative, and the rule is calculated to prevent the 
impropriety of changing from one person of the verb to another, as in the 
3d example. 

f When we address the Divine Being, it is more direct and solemn to 
make the relative agree with the second person. In the Scriptures this is 
generally done. See Nell. ix. 7, &c. This sentence may therefore stand 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 83 

Obs. The relative ought to be placed next its antecedent, to 
prevent ambiguity ; thus, The boy beat his companion, whom every 
body believed incapable of doing mischief; should he, The boy, 
whom every body believed incapable of doing mischief, beat his 
companion. 

Correct these Examples. 

The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry, who had 
never before committed so unjust an action. The soldier, with a 
single companion, who passed for the bravest man in the regiment, 
offered his services. 

Rule XVI. The relative is the nominative to the 
verb, when it stands immediately before the verb. 
When not close to the verb, it is in the objective, and 
depends either on the verb that comes after it, or on a 
preposition. 

EXERCISES. 

The value of any possession is to be chiefly estimated, by the 
relief which it can bring us in the time of our greatest need. The 
veil which covers from our sight the events of succeeding years, is 
a veil woven by the hand of mercy. The chief misfortunes that 
befall us in life, can be traced to some vices or follies which we 
have committed. Beware of those rash and dangerous connexions 
which may afterwards load you with dishonor. True chancy is 
not a meteor which * occasionally glances, but a luminary, which, 
*in its orderly and regular course, dispenses a benignant influence. 

We usually find that to be the sweetest fruit, which the birds 
have picked. Wealth cannot confer greatness; for nothing can 
make that great, which the decree of nature has ordained to be 
little. Justice consists not merely in performing those duties which 
the laws of society oblige us to perform, but in our duty to our 
Maker, to others, and to ourselves. True religion will show its 



as it is. In the third person singular of verbs, the solemn eth seems to 
become the dignity of the Almighty better than the familial*. e&; thus, I 
am the Lord thy God who teachefh thee to profit; who leadet/i thee by the 
way that thou shouldest go; is more dignified than, I am the Lord thy 
God who teaches thee to profit; who leads thee. 

* An adverb, or a clause between two commas, frequently comes between 
the relative and the verb. The rule at the top is but a general rule ; for 
in poetry in particular, the relative, though not close to the verb, is some- 
timesvin the nominative.— See first line of poetry, page 66. 



84 ENGLISH SYNTAX* 

influence in every part of our conduct ; it is like the sap* of a living 
tree, which pervades the most distant boughs. 

Rule XVII. When the antecedent and relative are 
both in the nominative, the relative is the nominative 
to the verb next it, and the antecedent is generally the 
nominative to the second verb. 

exercises. , 

He who performs every part of his business in its due place and 
season, suffers no part of time to escape without profit. He who 
does good for the sake of virtue, seeks neither praise nor reward, 
though he is sure of both at the last. He who is the abettor of a 
bad action, is equally guilty with him that commits it. He who 
overcomes his passions, conquers his greatest enemies. The con- 
solation which is derived from a reliance upon Providence, enables 
us to support the most severe misfortunes. 

That wisdom which enlightens the understanding and reforms 
the life, is the most valuable. Those and those only, who have 
felt the pleasing influence of the most genuine and exalted friend- 
ship, can comprehend its beauties. An error that proceeds from 
any good principle, leaves no room for resentment. Those who 
raise envy will easily incur censure. He who is a stranger to in- 
dustry, may possess, but he cannot enjoy ; he only who is active 
and industrious, can experience real pleasure. That man who is 
neither elated by success, nor dejected by disappointment, whose 
conduct is not influenced by any change of circumstances to deviate 
from the line of integrity, possesses true fortitude of mind. 

Rule XVIII. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, 
adjectives, adverbs, and sometimes other wordst ; as, 
He sleeps soundly; he swam quite across the river. 

Obs. Adverbs are, for the most part, placed before adjectives, 
after verbs, active or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary 
and the verb; as, He is very attentive,- She behaves well, and is 
much esteemed.^ 

* Sap, the objective governed by to understood after like, and antecedent 
to which. 

f Adjectives qualify nouns and pronouns, and sometimes verbs ; adverbs 
qualify all other words. 

JThis is but a general rule. For it is impossible to give an exact and 
determinate one for the placing of adverbs on all occasions. The easy 
flow and perspicuity of the phrase ought to be chiefly regarded. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 85 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

We should not be overcome totally by present events. He un- 
affectedly and forcibly spoke, and was heard attentively by the 
whole assembly. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous, therefore, 
to remonstrate. Not only he found her employed, but pleased and 
tranquil also. In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear care- 
fully requires to be consulted as well as the sense. He never has 
been* at court. 

* The women contributed all their rings and jewels voluntarily 
to assist the government. Havingy not known, or having not con- 
sidered, the measures proposed, he failed of success. He was de- 
termined to invite back the king, and to call together his friends. 

t Ask me never so much dowry. Charmers charming never so 
wisely. 

Rule XIX. Prepositions govern the objective case ; 
as, To whom much is given, of him much shall be 
required. 

exercises. 

I traveled with him. We gave a book to them. Get it from 
them again. Between him and me you stood. From her and her 
sister you need expect nothing. With whom do you sit 1 From 
whom was that book bought] To whom will you give that pen? 
Will you go with me I Without me ye can do nothing. With- 
hold not good from those to whom it is due. With whom do you 
live 1 Great friendship subsists between him and me. He can 



* The adverb is sometimes placed with propriety before the verb, or at 
some distance after it; as, The women voluntarily contributed all their 
rings and jewels, &c. They carried their proposition farther. 

t Not, when it qualifies the present participle, comes before it. 

% Never is often improperly used for ever; thus, "If I make my hands 
never so clean," should be, "Ever so clean." 

Two words which end in ly succeeding each other are indeed a little 
offensive to the ear, but rather than write bad grammar, it would be better 
either to offend it. or avoid the use of exceedingly in this case altogether; 
and instead of saying, "He used me exceedingly discreetly," say," He used 
me very discreetly ;" or, if that is not strong enough, vary the expression. 

Sometimes adjectives are used as adverbs ; as, Sloio tolls the village 
elock. 

Some other words and phrases, such as, a little, a great deal are often 
used as adverbs; as, The letters ichich I receive, give me not a little plea- 
sure. I do not care a sixpence whether you come or go. 

8 



86 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

do nothing of himself. They willingly, and of themselves, endea- 
vored to make up the difference. He laid the suspicion upon some- 
body, I know not whom, in the company. 

Obs. 1. — The preposition should be placed immediately before 
the relative which depends upon it.* 

Correct these Examples. 

Who do you speak to 1 Who did they ride with] Who dost 
thou serve under? Flattery can hurt none, but those who it is 
agreeable to. It is not I thou art engaged with. It was not he 
that they were so angry with. Who didst thou receive that intel- 
ligence from 1 The person who I traveled with has sold the horse 
which he rode on during our journey. Does that boy know who 
he speaks to ] I hope it is not I thou art displeased with. 

Obs. 2. — It is inelegant to connect two prepositions, or one and 
an active verb, with the same noun. , 

Correct this Example. 

He is quite unacquainted with, and consequently cannot speak 
upon, that subject. 

OBSERVATION 3. 

To — is used after a verb of motion ; as, We went to Spain. 

At — is used after the verb to be > as, I was at Paris. 

In- — is used before names of countries and large cities ; as, I live 
in London, in England. 

At — is used before villages, towns, and foreign cities; as, He re- 
sided at Valley Forge ; at York ; at Rome. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

He is going for London next week. She went for Boston some 
time ago. We were once detained two years at England. You 
was in the place before John. They have just arrived in Leith, 
and are going to Dublin. They will reside two months at England. 
I have been to London, after having resided at France ; and I now 
live in Bath. I was in the place appointed long before any of the 
rest. We touched in Liverpool on our way for New York. He 



* The preposition is often separated from the relative ; but though this 
is perhaps allowable in familiar conversation yet, in solemn composition, 
the piacingr.of the preposition immediately before the relative is more per- 
spicuous and elegant. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 87 

resides in Mavisbank in Scotland. She has lodgings at George's 
Square.* 

Rule XX. Conjunctions connect verbs which are 
in the same mode and tense ; as, Do good and seek 
peace. 

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns which are 
in the same case ; as, He and / are happy. 

EXERCISES. 

T will go and tell him. She spells and pronounces well. Being 
idle and making a noise are improper. He and I were there. Let 
him and me read. Your brother and she were here at tea. Be- 
tween you and me. They and we were at school together. He 
reads and writes well. He or I must go. Neither he nor she can 
attend. Anger glances into the breast of a wise man, but rests 
only in the bosom of fools. My brother and he are tolerable gram- 
marians. The parliament addressed the king, and was prorogued 
the same day. If he understands the subject, and attends to it, he 
can scarcely fail of success. Did he not tell thee his fault, and 
entreat thee to forgive him 1 And dost thou open thine eyes upon 
such a one, and bring me into judgment with thee ] You and we 
enjoy many privileges. Professing regard, and acting differently, 
mark a base mind. 

Oes. 1. — Conjunctions frequently connect different modes and 
tenses of verbs ; but in these instances the nominative is generally 
repeated ; as, He may return, but he will not continue. 

Correct these Examples. 

Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce 
virtue. Our season of improvement is short; and, whether used 
or not, will soon pass away. She is not beautiful, but handsome. 
I never want credit, though often money. 

Obs. 2. — The nominative is generally repeated, even to the 
same mode and tense when a contrast is stated with but, not, or 
though, &c. 

Correct these Examples. 
She was proud, though now humble. He is not rich, but is 
respectable. 

* One inhabitant of a city, speaking of another's residence, says, He 
resides in Bank street ; or if the word number is used, at No. — Prince 
street. 



88 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

Obs. 3. — Some conjunctions have their correspondent conjunc- 
tions; thus, 

Neither requires Nor after it ; as, Neither he nor his brother was in. 
Tiiough Yet ; as, Though he was rich, yet for our sakes, &c. 
Whether Or Whether he will do it or not, I cannot tell. 

Either Or* Either she or her sister must go. 

As As Mine is as good as yours. 

As So As the stars so shall thy seed be. As the one 

dieth, so dieth the other. 
So As He is not so wise as his brother. To see thy 

glory so as I have seen it, &c. 
So That I am so weak that I cannot walk. 

EXERCISES. 

It is neither cold nor hot. It is so clear that I need not explain it. 
The relations are so uncertain, that they require a great deal of 
examination. The one is equally as deserving as the other. I must 
be so candid as to own, that I have been mistaken. He would neither 
do it himself, nor let me do it. He was so angry that he could not 
speak. As thy days, so shall thy strength be. Though he slay 
me, yet will I trust in hirn. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Neither his father or his mother was there. John is not as dili- 
gent as his brother. There was something so amiable in his looks 
as affected me much. I think mine so good as yours. As his 
application is, will his progress be. He is not as wise and as 
learned as he pretends to be. He must go himself, or send his 
servant. There is no condition so secure as cannot admit of 
change. He is not as eminent, and as much esteemed, as he 
thinks himself to be. Neither despise the poor, or envy the rich, 
for the one dieth so as the other. As far as I am able to judge, 
the book is well written. His raiment was so white as snow 

Rule XXI. The interjections Oh! and Ah! &c. 
generally require the objective case of the first personal 
pronoun, and the nominative of the second ; as, Ah 

* The poets frequently use Or — or, for Either — or; and Nor — nor, for 
Neither — nor. In prose not — nor is often used for neither — nor. The yet 
after though is frequently and properly suppressed. 

Or does not require either before it when the one word is a mere ezpla~ 
nation of the other ; as, It cost six shillings, or one dollar. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 



89 



me! thou fool! ye hypocrites! Woe's thou, 
would be improper ; it should be, Woe's thee ; that is, 
Woe is to thee. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Ah !• unhappy thee, who are deaf to the calls of duty and of 
honor. Oh! happy* us, surrounded with so many blessings. 
Woe's I, for I am a man of unclean lips. 

Rule XXII. It is improper to use both a noun 
and its pronoun as a nominative to the same verb ; as, 
Man that is born of a woman, he is of few days, and 
full of trouble ; — tomit he. 

exercises to be corrected. 

The king he is just. The men they were there. Many words 
they darken speech. My banks they are furnished with bees. 
The books they are torn. The boy he was negligent. The plea- 
sures which arise from doing good, they alone are pure. Who, 
instead of going about doing good, they are perpetually intent upon 
doing mischief. Disappointments and afflictions, kowever disa- 
greeable, they often improve us. Simple and innocent pleasures 
they alone are durable. 

t Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighboring prince 
would have wanted a great deal of that incense which has been 
offered up to him. § Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, 



* In some cases we use the objective of the second personal pronoun, 
as well as that of the first, after the interjection; thus, Ah ! thee, my babe, 
if thy father die, i. e/Ah! what will befall thee, or, ah! what will coaie 
upon thee. Ah me ! my son, and Ah thee ! my son, are also correct. 
. As Interjections, owing to quick feelings, express only the emotions of 
the mind, 'without stopping to mention the circumstances that produced 
them; many of the phrases in which they occur are very elliptical, and 
therefore a verb or preposition must be understood. Me, for instance, in 
Ah me, is governed by befallen or upon understood; thus, Ah, what mis- 
chief has befallen me, or come upon me. 

Oh is used to express the emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise. 

O is used to express wishing, exclamation, or a direct address to a person. 

f In some cases where the noun is highly emphatical, the repetition of 
it in the pronoun is not only allowable, but even elegant; as, The Lord 
he is the God. 1 Kings xviii. 39 ; see also Deut. xxxi. 6. 

% It ought to be, If this rule had been observed, a neighboring; &c. 

$ It ought to be, Though man has great variety, &c. 

8* 



90 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

and such, from which others as well as himself might receive profit 
and delight, yet they are all within his own breast. 

* For he bringeth down them that dwell on high; the lofty city 
he layeth it low. 

The friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, 
Grapple them to thy soul with hooks of steel. 

Rule XXIII. A pronoun after than, or as, either 
agrees with a verb, or depends on a verb or preposition; 
as, He is wiser than I (am) ; She loved him more than 
(she loved) me.t 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

He is as old as her. She is as old as him. We are stronger 
than them. They were more prudent than us. The farm was 
better cultivated by his brother than he. He is younger than me. 
She is kinder to him than I. John can write better than me. He 
is as good as her. Thou art a much greater loser than me by his 
death. She suffers hourly more than me. They know how to 
write as well as him ; but he is a better grammarian than them. 
The undertaking was much better executed by his brother than he. 
They are greyer gainers than us. She is not so learned as him. 
If the king give us leave, we may perform the office as well as 
them that do. 

Obs. The word containing the answer to a question, must 
be in the same case with the word which asks it ; as, Who said 
that 1 I (said it.) Whose books are these ] John's (books.) 

Correct these Examples. 
Who left the door open 7 Me. Who spilt the ink ] Him. 
Who came out of the garden last] Them. Whom did you see 
walking in the garden 1 He and she. Who betrayed her com- 
panion ] Not me. Who revealed the secrets he ought to have 

* Rule. It is improper to use both a noun and its pronoun as an object 
after the same verb ; thus, in Deut. iv. 3, Your eyes have seen what the 
Lord did because of Baal-peor, for all the men that followed Baal-peor, the 
Lord thy God hath destroyed them from among you ; them is superfluous, 
as a transposition of the last clause will show ; thus, For the Lord hath 
destroyed all the men from among you that followed Baal-peor. 

I When who immediately follows than, it is used improperly in the 
objective case ; as, " Alfred, than ichom a greater king never reigned ;"— 
than whom is not grammatical. Tt ought to be. than who ; because who is 
the nom. to mas understood. Than whom is as bad a phrase as, "He is 
taller than him.'* 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 91 

concealed 1 Not him ; it was her. Whom did you meet ? He. 
"Who bought that book 1 Him. Whom did you see there 7 ? He 
and his sister. Whose pen is this 7 . Mine's. 

Rule XXIV. When two persons or things are 
contrasted, that refers to the first mentioned, and this 
to the last ; as, Virtue and vice are as opposite to each 
other as light and darkness ; that ennobles the mind, 
this debases it. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Wealth and poverty are both temptations ; this tends to excite 
pride, that discontentment. Religion raises men above themselves, 
irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes; that binds them down to 
a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth, this exalts them to the 
skies. * And the cloud came between the camp of the Egyptians and 
the camp of Israel, and it was a cloud and darkness to them, but it 
gave light to these. Moses and Solomon were men of the highest 
renown ; the latter was remarkable for his meekness, the former 
was renowned for his wisdom. I have always preferred cheerful- 
ness to mirth ; the former I consider as an act, the latter as a h^bit 
of the mind. Body and soul must part; the former wings its way 
to its almighty source, the latter drops into the dark and noisome 
grave. 

Rule XXV. It is improper to place a clause of a 
sentence between a possessive case and the word which 
governs it ; thus, She began to extol the farmer's, as 
she called him, excellent understanding ; should be, 
She began to extol the excellent understanding of the 
farmer, as she called him. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 
They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he was called, 
senseless and extravagant conduct. They implicitly obeyed the 
protector's, as they called him, imperious mandates. Beyond this, 

* Former and latter are often used instead of that and this. They are 
alike in both numbers. 

That and this are seldom applied to persons ; but former and latter are 
applied to persons and things indiscriminately. In most cases, however, 
the repetition of the noun is preferable to either of them. 



92 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

the arts cannot be traced of civil society. These are David's, the 
king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people's psalms. We very 
often laugh at the fool's, as he is called, buffoonery. They care- 
fully attended to the squire's, as they call him, orders. This is 
Paul's the Christian hero, and great apostle of the Gentiles' advice. 
Obs. Whichsoever and whatsoever are often divided by the 
interposition of the corresponding word; thus, On whichsoever side 
the king cast his eyes ; should be, On which side soever the king, &c. 

Correct these Examples. 

Howsoever beautiful they appear, they have no real merit. In 
whatsoever light we view him, his conduct will bear inspection. 
On whatsoever side they are contemplated, they appear to advan- 
tage. Howsoever much he might despise the maxims of the king's 
administration, he kept a total silence on that subject. 

* Whoso keepeth the fig tree shall eat the fruit thereof. 

Rule XXVI. In the use of verbs, and words that 
in point of time relate to each other, the order of time 
must be observed ; for example, I remember him these 
many years, should be, I have remembered him, &c.t 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

I have compassion on the multitude, because they continue with 
me now three days. And he that was dead sat up, and began to 
speak. The next new year's day I shall be at school three years. 
The court laid hold on all the opportunities which the weakness or 
necessities of princes afford it, to extend its authority. Ye will 
not come unto me that ye might have life. His sickness was so 
great, that I often feared he would have died before our arrival. It 
would have given me great satisfaction to relieve him from that 
distressed situation. He ought to do it a year ago. If they believe 
not Moses and the prophets, neither will they believe though one 
rose from the dead. His disciples asked him what might this 
parable be. And hath put all things under his feet, and gave him 
to be the head over all things to the church. 

Obs. After the past tense, the present infinitive (and not 
the perfect) should be used ; as, I intended to write to my father, 

* Whoso is an old word used instead of he that; as, Whoso mocketh the 
poor reproacheth his Maker; it should be, He that mocketh, &c. 

f The best general rule that can be given, is. To observe what thesensz 
necessarily requires. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 93 

and not, I intended to have written ; — for however long it now is 
since I thought of writing, to write was then present to me, and 
must, still be considered as present when I bring back that time, 
and the thoughts of it. 

Correct these Examples. 

I always intended to have rewarded my son according to his 
merit.' We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 
From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have 
been a man of letters. It was a pleasure to have received his ap- 
probation of my labors. I intended to have written you last week. 
It is very long since I ordered the shoemaker to have made new 
boots for me. I expected to have gained the prize this week. 

Rule XXVII. When the present participle is used 
as a noun, it requires an article before it, and of after 
it ; as, The sum of the moral law consists in the obey- 
ing of God, and the loving of our neighbor as our- 
selves.* 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The obeying our parents is the first duty of nature. Neglecting- 
of our duty will ultimately produce pain. Learning of languages 
is very difficult. The learning any thing speedily requires great 
application. By the exercising our faculties they are improved. 
By observing of these rules you may avoid mistakes. By obtain- 
ing of wisdom thou wilt command esteem. This was a betraying 
the trust reposed in him. The not attending to this rule is the 
cause of a very common error. 

Obs. 1. — The present participle with a possessive before it 
sometimes admits of of after it, and sometimes not; as, Their ob- 
serving of the rules prevented errors. By his studying the Scrip- 
tures he became wise. 

* These phrases would be right, were the article and of both omitted; 
as, The sum of the moral law consists in obeying God, and loving- our 
neighbor, &c. This manner of expression is, in many instances, prefera- 
ble to the other. In some cases, however, these two modes express very 
different ideas, and therefore attention to the sense is necessary ; as. He 
confessed the whole in the hearing of three witnesses, and the court spent 
an hour in hearing their depositions. 

When a preposition follows the participle, of is inadmissible; as. His 
depending on promises proved his ruin. His neglecting to study when 
young rendered him ignorant all his life. 



94 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 






Correct these Examples. 

Our approving their bad conduct may encourage them to become 
worse. For his avoiding that precipice he is indebted to his 
friend's care. What is the reason of John rising so early ] This 
man raging is unpleasant. Ann behaving well gained her esteem. 

Obs. 2. — A noun before the present participle is put in the pos- 
sessive case ; as, Much will depend on the pupil's composing fre- 
quently. 

Sometimes, however, the sense forbids it to be put in the pos- 
sessive case; thus, What do you think of my horse running to- 
day] means, Do you think I should let him run] but, What do 
you think of my horse's running ? means, he has run, do you think 
he ran well 1 

Correct these Examples. 
What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so 
hastily 1 I remember it being done. What do you think of our 
garden being robbed last night 1 He thought my book being sold 
was wonderful. What do you think of my ship's sailing to- 
morrow ] 

Rule XXVIII. The indefinite passive participle 
must not be used instead of the past tense, (of the active 
verb,) either in forming the compound tenses or when 
it stands alone ; thus, / have ivrote, should be, I have 
written. I seen him, should be, / saw him. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

He has wrote his copy. I would have wrote a letter. He had 
mistook his true interest. The coat had no seam, but was wove 
throughout. The French language is spoke in every kingdom in 
Europe. His resolution was too strong to be shook by slight 
opposition. The horse was stole. They have chose the part of 
honor and virtue. The Rhine was froze over. She was showed 
into the drawing-room. My people have slid backwards. He has 
broke the bottle. Some fell by the way-side, and was trode down. 
The price of cloth has lately rose very much. The work was very 
well execute. His vices have weakened his mind, and broke his 
health. He woyld have went with us, had he been invited. No- 
thing but application is wanting to make you an excellent scholar. 
This is well wrote. He had mistook me. Smiles were interwove 
with sighs. He had spoke two hours before that. The house was 
situate at the head of the street. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX, 95 

He run off yesterday. He drunk too much beer. They begun 
to sing with joy. He soon begun to be weary of having nothing 
to do. He was greatly heated, and he drunk with avidity. The 
bending hermit here a prayer begun. And end with sorrows as 
they first begun. 

A second deluge learning thus o'er-run ; 

And the monks finish'd what the Goths begun. 

Rule XXIX. The comparative degree, and the 
adjective other, require than after them, and such re- 
quires as ; as, Greater than I ; No other than he ; 
Such as do well.* 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

He has little more of the scholar besides the name. Be ready 
to succor such persons who need thy assistance. He is fiercer nor 
a lion. It is no other but himself. She gave such an answer that 
astonished us all. I will sooner part with life as with liberty. 
Sweeter nor honey. They had no sooner risen but they applied 
themselves to their studies. Those savage people seemed to have 
no other element but war. Such men that act treacherously ought 
to be avoided. He gained nothing farther by his speech, but only 
to be commended for his eloquence. This is none other but the 
gate of paradise. Such sharp replies that cost him his life. To 
trust in him is no more but to acknowledge his power. 

Obs. 1. — When two objects are compared, the comparative is 
generally used ; but when more than two, the superlative]- ; as, This 
is the younger of the two ; Mary is the wisest of them ail. 

Correct these Examples. 
James is the wisest of the two. He is the weakest of the two. 
Ann is the tallest of the two. John is the more learned of the 



* Such, meaning either a consequence, or so great, requires that; as, His 
behavior was such, that I ordered him to leave the room. Such is the in- 
fluence of money, that few can resist it. 

When the two objects form a group, or are not so much opposed to each 
other as to require than before the last, some respectable writers use the 
superlative,, and say, w James is the wisest of the two" " He is the weak- 
est of the two." The superlative is often more agreeable to the ear; nor 
is the sense in j ured. In many cases a strict adherence to the comparative 
form renders the language too stiff and formal. 

f A comparison in which more than two are concerned, may be ex- 
pressed by the comparative as well as by the superlative, and in some cases 
better; but the comparative considers the objects compared as belonging 



$6 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

three. She was the most handsome of all her sisters. I under- 
stood him the best of all others who spoke on the subject. Eve 
was the fairest of all her daughters. He is the likeliest of any 
other to succeed. Jane is the wittier of the three, not the wiser. 

Rule XXX. Double comparatives and superlatives 
are improper ; thus, Mine is a more better book, but 
John's is the most best ; should be, Mine is a better 
book, but John's is the best. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. James 
is a worser scholar than John. Tray is the most swiftest dog. 
Absalom was the most beautifulest man. He is the* chiefest 
among ten thousand. His work is perfect ; his brother's more 
perfect ; and his father's the most perfect of all. Mine is a more 
sweeter apple than yours. I saw the most elegantest house yes- 
terday that I ever saw. I think that more true. He is more uni- 
versally esteemed. The extremest boundary of the earth. His 
rule was most false. 

Rule XXXI. Adjectives should not be used as 

adverbs, nor adverbs as adjectives ; as, Remarkable 
well, for remarkably well ; and, Use a little wine for 
thine often infirmities, instead of thy frequent infirmities. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

They are miserable poor. They behaved the noblest. He fought 
bolder than his brother. He lived in a manner agreeably to the 
dictates of reason and religion. He was extreme prodigal, and his 
property is now near exhausted. I am extreme willing to assist 

to different classes; while the superlative compares them as included in 
one class. The comparative is used thus : " Greece was more polished 
than any other nation of antiquity." Here Greece stands by itself as 
opposed to the other nations of antiquity — She was none of the other 
nations — She was more polished than they. The same idea is expressed 
by the superlative when the word other is left out ; thus, " Greece was the 
most polished nation of antiquity." Here Greece is assigned the highest 
place in the class of objects among which she is numbered — the nations 
of antiquity — she is one of them. 

* Chief, universal, perfect, &c. imply the superlative degree without est, 
or most. In language sublime or passionate, however, the word perfect 
requires the superlative form to give it effect. A lover enraptured with 
his mistress would naturally call her the most perfect of her sex. 

Superior and inferior always imply comparison, and require to after 
them. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 97 

you. She is particular neat. I like apples uncommon well. He 
is exceeding rude. Her soon arrival gave universal joy. She 
arrived unexpected. They lived conformable to the rules of pru- 
dence. 'He speaks very fluent, reads excellent, buboes not think 
very coherent. They came agreeable to their promise, and con- 
ducted themselves suitable to the occasion. They hoped for a soon 
and prosperous issue to the war. 

Obs. 1. — From should not be used before hence, thence, and 
whence, because it is implied. In many cases, however, the omis- 
sion of from would render the language intolerably stiif and disa- 
greeable. 

Obs. 2. — After verbs of motion, hither, thither, and whither 
should be used, and not here, there, and where. 

Obs. 3. — When and while should not be used as nouns, nor 
where as a preposition and a relative ; i. e. for in which, &c. 

Correct these Examples. 
From whence come ye 1 He departed from thence into a desert 
place. Where are you going] Bid him come here immediately. 
We walked there in an hour. He drew up a petition, where he 
too frequently represented his own merit. He went to London 
last year, since when I have not seen him. The situation where I 
found him. It is not worth his while. 

Rule XXXII. Two negatives in the same sentence 
are improper ;* thus, I cannot by no means allow it ; 
should be, I can by no means allow it, or, I cannot by 
any means allow it. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

I cannot read no more. I cannot eat no more. Do not let 
nobody in. Nothing never pleased me more. I have not got no 
book. I have not seen no one. Be honest, nor take no semblance 
of disguise. He is not very sensible I do not think. I have not, 
nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust. There cannot be 
nothing more insignificant than vanity. I cannot drink no more. 

* Sometimes the two negatives are intended to be an affirmative; as, 
Nor did they not perceive him; that is, They did perceive him. In this 
case they are proper. 

When one of the negatives, (such as dis, in, un, im, Sec.) is joined to 
another word, the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate variety of 
•xpression; 1 as, His language, though simple, is not inelegant; that is, It 
is elegant. 

9 



9S 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 



He cannot do nothing. We have not done nothing to-day. He 
will never be no taller. They could not travel no farther. Covet 
neither riches nor honors, nor no such perishing things. Nothing 
- never affected her so much. Do not interrupt me thyself, nor let 
no one disturb me. I am resolved not to comply with the pro- 
posal, neither at present nor at any other time. 



Rule XXXIII. Certain words and phrases must 
be followed by appropriate prepositions ; such as, 



Accuse of 
Abhorrence of 
Acquit of 
Adapted to 
Agreeable to 
Averse to 
Bestow upon 
Boast or brag of* 
Call on 
Change for 
Confide in\ 
Conformable to 
Compliance with 
Consonant to 
Conversant with, in 
Dependent upon 
DerogationyVom 
Die of or by 
Differ from 
Difficulty in 
Diminution of 
Disappointed in or of 
Disapprove oft 
Discouragement to 



Dissent/rom 
Eager in 
Engaged in 
Exception from 
Expert at or in 
Fall under 
Free from 
Glad of or at 
Independent of 
Insist upon 
Made of 
Marry to 
Martyr for 
Need of 
Observance of 
Prejudice against 
Profit by 
Provide with 
Reconcile to 
Reduce under or to 
Regard to 
Replete with 
Resemblance to 
Resolve on 



* Boast is often used without of; as, For if I have boasted any thing. 

f The same preposition that follows the verb or adverb generally follows 
tho nonn which is derived from it; as, Confide ra, confidence in; disposed 
to tyrannize, a disposition to tyranny ; independently of. 

% Disapprove and approve are frequently used without of. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 99 

Swerve from True to 

Taste for or of Wait on 

Think of or on Worthy o/* 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. \ 

He was totally dependent of the papal crown. He accused the 
minister for betraying the Dutch. You have bestowed your favors 
to the most deserving persons. His abhorrence to gaming was 
extreme. I differ with you. The English were very different then 
to what they are now. In compliance to his father's advice. He 
would not comply to his measures. It is no discouragement for 
the authors. The wisest princes need not think it any diminution 
to their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon 
counsel. Is it consonant with our nature] Conformable with 
this plan. Agreeable with the sacred text. Call for your uncle/j- 

He was eager of recommending it. He had no regard after his 
father's commands. Thy prejudice to my cause. It is more than 
they thought^ for. There is no need for it. Reconciling himself 
with the king. No resemblance with each other. Upon such 
occasions as fell into their cognizance. I am engaged with writing. 
We profit from experience. He swerved out of the path. He is 
resolved of going to the Persian court. Expert of his work. Ex- 
pert on deceiving. The Romans reduced the world§ to their own 
power. He provided them of every thing. We insist for it. He 
seems to have a taste of such studies. 

Agreeably with your desire, I send the box. Call for John when 
you are in town. He was averse from the match. Painting was 
adapted for his taste. She was married on her cousin. He finds 
difficulty of getting his lesson. James was engaged with writing 
his lesson. He has a taste of drawing. I have no need for it. 

* Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, after worthy. \ 

Many of these words take other prepositions after them to express other 
meanings; thus, for example, Fall in, to concur; to comply. Fall off, to 
forsake. Fall out, to happen. Fall upon, to attack. Fall to, to begin 
eagerly to eat; to apply himself to. 

| Call for — is to demand, to require. Call 071, is to pay a short visit, to 
request ; as, While you call on him — I shall call for a bottle of wine. 

X The authorities for think of and think on are nearly equal. The latter, 
however, abounds more in the Scriptures than the former; as, Think on 
me when it shall be well with thee : Think upon me for good : Whatso- 
ever things are true, &c. think on these things. But think of is perhaps 
more common in modern publications. 

$ Reduce under, is to subdue. In other cases, to follows it; as, To 
reduce to practice, to fractions, &c. 



100 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

She was disappointed of her shoes, for they did not fit her. We 
profit from what we have seen. She has always had a taste of 
music. He died for thirst. He found none on whom he could 
safely confide. I dissent with the examiner. It was very well 
adapted for his capacity. He acquitted me from any imputation. 
You are conversant* to that science. They boast in their great 
riches. Call of James to walk with you. When we have had a 
true taste for the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish for 
those of vice. I will wait of you. He is glad of the calamities-j- 
of a neighbor. She is glad at his company. A strict observance 
after times and fashions. This book is replete in errors. These 
are exceptions to the general rule. He died a martyr to Chris- 
tianity. This change is to the better. His productions were 
scrupulously exact, and conformable with all the rules of correct 
writing. He died of the sword. She finds a difficulty of fixing 
her mind. This prince was naturally averse^ from war. A freeman 
grows up with an aversion from subjection. 

Eule XXXIV. All the parts of a sentence should 
correspond to each other, and a regular and dependent 
construction throughout be carefully preserved. For 
example, the sentence, " He was more beloved, but 
not so much admired, as John," is inaccurate; because 
more requires than after it, which is nowhere found 
in the sentence. It should be, He was more beloved 
than John, but not so much admired. 

A proper choice of words, and a perspicuous arrange- 
ment, should be carefully attended to. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The reward is his due, and it has already, or will hereafter, be 
given to him. He was guided by interests always different, some- 
times contrary to (hose of the community. The intentions of some 

* We say conversant with men in things. Addison has conversant 
among the writings of the most polite authors, and conversant about world- 
ly affairs. Conversant with is preferable. 

| Glad of is perhaps more proper, when the cause of joy is something: 
gained or possessed; and glad at, when something befalis another; as, 
Jonah was exceedingly glad 0/ the gourd; He that is glad at calamities, 
shall not be unpunished. 

% Averse and aversion require to "after them rather than from ; but both, 
sre used* and sometimes even by the same author. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 101 

of these philosophers, nay of many, might and probably were good. 
No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained the mortifications 
as he has done to-day. He was more bold and active, but not so 
wise and studious as his companion. Then said they unto him, 
what shall 'we do that we might work the works of God 1 Sin- 
cerity is as valuable, and even more valuable, than knowledge. 
The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one another. 

But from this dreary period the recovery of the empire was 
become desperate ; no wisdom could prevent its fall. 

Rule XXXV. A is used before nouns in the sin- 
gular number only. The* is used before nouns in 
both numbers. 

The article is omitted before a noun that stands for 
a whole species; and before the names of minerals, 
metals, arts, &c. 

The last of two nouns after a comparative should 
have no article when they both refer to one person ; 
as, He is a better reader than Writer. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

A man is mortal. A sun rises in the east. I persecuted this 
way unto the death. The flour is cheaper now. Absalom rode 
on the mule. Have you studied the geography yet 1 Of the which 
I say nothing. The money is as scarce as ever. Has Ann learned 
the music. Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 
The gold is corrupting. A man is tl^ noblest work of the creation. 
"Wisest and best men are sometimes betrayed into errors. We 
must act our part with a constancy, though reward of our constancy 
be distant. There are some evils of life, which equally affect prince 
and people. Purity has its. seat in the heart : but extends its influ- 
ence over so much of outward conduct, as to form the great and 
material part of a character. At worst, I could but incur a gentle 
reprimand. The profligate man is seldom or never found to be the 
good husband, the good father, or the kind neighbor, j- He has 

* TJie is used before an individual representing the whole of its species, 
when compared with another individual representing another species; 
thus. The dog is a more grateful animal than the cat; i.e. All dogs are 
more grateful than cats. 

t A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omis- 
sion of the article a. If I say, he behaved with a little reverence ; I praise 
him a little. If I say, he behaved with little reverence ; I blame him. 
9* 



102 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

been much censured for paying a little attention to his business. 
So bold a breach of order, called for little severity in punishing the 
offender. 



Rule XXXVI. An ellipsis, or omission of some 
words, is frequently proper. Thus, instead of saying, 
He was a learned man, he was a wise man, and he 
was a good man; we say, He was a learned, wise, 
and good man. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

A house and a garden. The laws of God, and the laws of man. 
Avarice and cunning may acquire an estate ; but avarice and cun- 
ning cannot gain friends. His crimes had brought him into extreme 
distress, and extreme perplexity. He has an affectionate brother 
and an affectionate sister. By presumption, and by vanity, we 
provoke enmity, and we incur contempt. Genuine virtue supposes 
our benevolence to be strengthened and to be confirmed by princi- 
ple. He is temperate, he is disinterested, he is benevolent. Per- 
severance in laudable pursuits, will reward all our toils, and will 
produce effects beyond our calculation. We often commend im- 
prudently, as well as censure imprudently. Destitute of principle, 
he regarded neither his family nor his friends, nor his reputation. 
He insulted every man and every woman in the company. The 
temper of him who is always in the bustle of the world, will be 
often ruffled, and will be often disturbed. * He regards his word, 
but you do not regard it. They must be punished and they shall 
be punished. We succeeded, but they did not succeed. 



Rule XXXVII. An ellipsis is not allowable when 
it would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be 
attended with an impropriety ; for example, " We speak 
that we do know, and testify that we have seen," should 
be, We speak that which we do know, and testify that 
which we have seen. 



* The auxiliaries of the compound tenses are often used alone ; as, We 
have done it, but thou hast not ; i. e. thou hast not done it. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 103 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

* A noble spirit disdaineth the malice of fortune ; his greatness 
of soul is not to be cast down. A house and-j- orchard. A horse 
and ass. A learned and amiable young man. I gladly shunned 
who gladly fled from me. A taste for useful knowledge will pro- 
vide for us a great and noble entertainment when others leave us. 
They enjoy also a free constitution and laws. The captain had 
several men died in his ship of the scurvy. I must, however, be 
so candid to own I have been mistaken. The sacrifices of virtue 
will not only be rewarded hereafter, but recompensed even in this 
life. Oh, Piety! Virtue! how insensible have I been to thy 
charms ! That is a property most men have, or at least may attain. 
There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their 
own characters. Why do ye that which is not lawful to do on the 
Sabbath days] Neither was he, nor any other persons, suspected 
so much dissimulation. The evil of indolence is that we are often 
beset with. He was banished the country. Those that sow and 
reap will rejoice together. 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

John writes pretty. t Come here, James. Where are you going, 
Thomas 1 I shall never do so no more. The train of our ideas 
are often interrupted. Was you present at last meeting ? He 
need not be in so much haste. He dare not act otherwise than he 

* A noble spirit disdaineth, &cc. should be, A man of a noble spirit dis- 
daineth, &c. This will render the sentence consistent with the rules of 
grammar and with common sense : to talk of the soul of a spirit is ridi- 
culous. 

f The article being once expressed, the repetition of it becomes unne- 
cessary, except when a different form of it is requisite; as, A house and 
an orchard ; and when some peculiar emphasis requires a repetition; as, 
Not only the year, but the day and the hour were appointed. 

$ Let the pupil read the sentence correctly first : John writes prettily. 
Then tench him to give the reason for the correction, thus, Pretty should 
be prettily, because adjectives should not be used as adverbs. Rule 31. 
How do you know that pretty should be an adverb here 7 Because it is 
joined to the verb writes, and expr sses the manner in which John writes, 
or how he writes. Come hither, James : Here should be hither, because, after 
verbs of motion, hither, thither, and whither, should be used, and not here, 
there, and where. Rule 31. 



104 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

does. Him whom they seek is in the house. George or I is the 
person. They or he is much to be blamed. The troop consist of 
fifty men. Those set of books was a valuable present. A pillar 
sixty foot high. His conduct evinced the most extreme vanity. 
These trees are remarkable tall. He acted bolder than was ex- 
pected. This is he who I gave the book to. Eliza always appears 
amiably. She goes there to-morrow. From whence came they 1 
Who do you lodge with now 1 He was born at London, but he 
died in Bath. If he are sincere I am satisfied. Her father and her 
were at church. The master requested him and I to read more 
distinctly. It is no more but his due. Flatterers flatter as long, 
and no longer than they have expectations of gain. John told the 
same story as you told. This is the largest tree which I have 
ever seen. 

Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free of pain. Those 
sort of dealings are unjust. David the son of Jesse was the young- 
est of his brothers. You be very kind to him, he said. Well, 
says I, what does thou think of him now 1 James is one of those 
boys that was kept in at school, for bad behavior. Thou, James, 
did deny the deed. Neither good nor evil come of themselves. 
We need not to be afraid. He expected to have gained more by 
the bargain. You should drink plenty of goat milk. It was him 
who spoke first. Does you like milk? Is it me that you mean ] 
Who did you buy your grammar from'? If one takes a wrong 
method at first setting out, it will lead them astray. Neither man 
nor woman were present. I am more taller than you. She is the 
same lady who sang so sweetly. After the most straitest sect of 
our religion, I lived a Pharisee. Is not thy wickedness great] 
and thine iniquities infinite 1 There was more sophists than one. 
If a person have lived twenty or thirty years, he should have some 
experience. If this were his meaning, the prediction has failed. 
Fidelity and truth is the foundation of all justice. His associates 
in wickedness will not fail to mark the alteration of his conduct. 
Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. 

And when they had lift up their eyes, they saw no man, save 
Jesus only. Strive not with man without cause, if he has done 
thee no harm. I wrote to, and cautioned the captain against it. 
Now both the chief priests and Pharisees had given a command- 
ment, that if any man knew where he were, he should show it, 
that they might take him; The girl her book is torn in pieces. 
It is not me who he is in love with. Pie which commands him- 
self, commands the whole world. Nothing is more lovelier than 
virtue. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 105 

The peoples happiness is the statesmans honor. Changed to a 
worser shape thou canst not be. I have drunk no spirituous liquors 
this six years. He is taller than me, but I am stronger than him. 
Solid peace and contentment consists neither in beauty or riches, 
but in the favor of God. After who is the King of Israel come 
out l The reciprocations of love and friendship between he and 
I, have been many and sincere. Abuse of mercies ripen us for 
judgment. Peter and John is not at school to-day. Three of 
them was taken into custody. To study diligently, and behave 
genteelly, is commendable. The enemies who we have most to 
fear are those of our own hearts. Regulus was reckoned the most 
consummate warrior that Rome could then produce. Suppose life 
never so long, fresh accessions of knowledge may still be made. 

Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can tell me what 
became of Elijah. Neither the master nor the scholars is reading. 
Trust not him, whom, you know, is dishonest. I love no interests 
but that of truth and virtue. Every imagination of the thoughts 
of the heart are evil continually. No one can be blamed for taking 
due care of their health. They crucified him, and two others with 
him, on either side one, and Jesus in the midst. 

I have read Popes Homer, and Drydens Virgil. He that is dili- 
gent you should commend. There was an earthquake which made 
the earth to tremble. And God said to Solomon, Wisdom and 
knowledge is granted unto thee, &c. I cannot commend him for 
justifying hisself when he knows that his conduct was so very- 
improper. He was very much made on at school. Though he 
was a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he suf- 
fered. If he is alone tell him the news; but if there is anybody 
with him, do not tell him. They ride faster than us. Though 
the measure be mysterious, it is worthy of attention. If he does 
but approve my endeavors, it will be an ample reward. Was it 
him who came last 1 Yes, it was him.' 

Forever in this humble cell, 

Let thee and I my fair one dwell. 

Every man should act suitable to his character and station in 
life. His arguments were exceeding clear. I only spoke three 
words on that subject. The ant and the bee sets a good example 
before dronish boys. Neither in this world, neither in the world 
to come. Evil communications corrupts good manners. Hannibal 
was one of the greatest generals whom the world ever saw. The 
middle station of life seems to be the most advantageously situated 
for gaining of wisdom. 



106 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 



1 



These are the rules of grammar, by the observing which yon 
may avoid mistakes. The king conferred upon him the title of a 
duke. My exercises are not well wrote, I do not hold my pen 
well. Grammar teaches us to speak proper. She accused her 
companion for having betrayed her. I will not dissent with her. 
Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path of duty and honor. 
Who shall I give it to 1 Who are you looking for ] It is a 
diminution to, or a derogation of their judgment. It fell into their 
notice or cognizance. She values herself for her fortune. That 
is a book which I am much pleased with. I have been to see the 
coronation, and a fine sight it was. That picture of the emperor's 
is a very exact resemblance of him. Every thing that we here 
enjoy, change, decay, and come to an end. It is not him they 
blame so much. 

No people has more faults than they that pretend to have none. 
The laws of Draco is said to have been wrote with blood. It is so 
clear, or so obvious, as I need not explain it. She taught him and 
I to read. The more greater a bad man's accomplishments are, 
the more dangerous he is to society, and the more less fit for a 
companion. Each has their own faults, and every one should 
endeavor to correct their own. Let your promises be few, and 
such that you can perform. 

His being at enmity with Csesar and Antony were the cause 
of perpetual discord. Their being forced to their books in an age 
at enmity with all restraint, have been the reason why many have 
hated books all their lives. There was a coffee-house at that end 
of the town, in which several gentlemen used to meet of an even- 
ing. Do not despise the state of the poor, lest it becomes your 
own condition. It was his duty to have interposed his authority 
in an affair of so much importance. He spent his whole life in 
the doing good. Every gentleman who frequented the house, and 
conversed with the erectors of this occasional club, were invited to 
pass an evening when they thought fit. The winter has not been 
so severe as we expected it to have been. The rest (of the stars) 
in circuit walls this universe. Sir, if thou have borne him hence } 
tell me where thou hast laid him. 

A lampoon, or a satire, does not carry in them robbery or 
murder. She and you were not mistaken in her conjectures. My 
sister and I, as well as my brother, are employed in their respective 
occupations. He repents him of that indiscreet action. It was 
me, and not him, that wrote it. Art thou him ] I shall take care 
that no one shall suffer no injury. I am a man who approves of 
wholesome discipline, and who recommend it to others ; but I am 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 107 

not a person who promotes severity, or who ohject to mild and 
generous treatment. He has hit me in a right place enough. 
Prosperity, as truly asserted by Seneca, it very much obstructs the 
knowledge of ourselves. To do to others as we would that they 
should do to us, it is our duty. This grammar was purchased at 
Perkins' the bookseller's. The council was not unanimous. 

Who spilt the ink upon the table 1 Him. Who lost this book? 
Me. Whose pen is this ] Johns. There is in fact no impersonal 
verbs in any language. And he spitted on the ground, and anointed 
his eyes. Had I never seen ye, I had never known ye. The ship 
Mary and Ann were restored to their owners. If we consult the 
improvement of mind, or the health of body, it is well known exer- 
cise is the great instrument for promoting both. A man may see 
a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a 
description. 

I had no sooner placed her at my right hand, by the fire, but 
she opened to me the reason of her visit. A prudent wife, she 
shall be blessed. The house you speak of, it cost me five hundred 
dollars. Did I not tell thee, O thee infamous wretch ! that thou 
wouldst bring me to ruin] Not only the counsels and attorneys, 
but the judge's opinion also, favored his cause. It was the men's, 
women's, and children's lot, to suffer great calamities. That is the 
eldest son of the king of England's. Lord Feversham the general's 
tent. This palace had been the grand Sultan's Mahomet's. They 
did not every man cast away the abomination of their eyes. 

* I am purposed. He is arrived. They were deserted from 
their regiment. Whose works are these] They are Cicero, the 
most eloquent of men's. The mighty rivals are now at length 
agreed. The time of William making the experiment, at length 
arrived. If we alter the situation of any of the words, we shall 
presently be sensible of the melody suffering. This picture of the 
king's does not much resemble him. These pictures of the king 
were sent to him from Italy. He who committed the offence, thou 
should st correct, not I, who am innocent. 

But Thomas, one of the twelve, called Didymus, was not with 
them when Jesus came. I offer observations, that a long and 
checkered pilgrimage have enabled me to make on man. After I 
visited Europe, I returned to America. Clelia is a vain woman, 
if we do not flatter, she will be disgusted. In his conduct was 

* Rule. It is improper to use a veuter verb in the passive form. Thus, I 
am purposed— He is arrived: should be, I have purposed — He has arrived. 
From this rule there are a number of exceptions; for it is allowable to 
say, He is come. She is gone, &e. 



108 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

treachery, and in his words faithless professions. The orators did 
not forget to enlarge themselves on so popular a subject. He acted 
conformable with his instructions, and cannot be censured justly. 

No person could speak stronger on this subject, nor behave 
nobler, than our young advocate, for the cause of toleration. They 
were studious to ingratiate with those who it was dishonorable to 
favor. The house framed a remonstrance, where they spoke with 
great freedom of the king's prerogative. Neither natter or contemn 
the rich or the great. Many would exchange gladly their honors, 
beauty, and riches, for that more quiet and humbler station, which 
thou art now dissatisfied with. High hopes, and florid views, is a 
great enemy to tranquillity. Many persons will not believe but 
what they are free from prejudices. I will lay me down in peace, 
and take my rest. This word I have only found in Spencer. The 
king being apprized of the conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem. 

A too great variety of studies dissipate and weaken the mind. 
James was resolved to not indulge himself in such a cruel amuse- 
ment. They admired the countryman's, as they called him, candor 
and uprightness. The pleasure or pain of one passion, differ from 
those of another. The court of Spain, who gave the order, were 
not aware of the consequences. There was much spoke and wrote 
on each side of the question ; but I have chose to suspend my 
decision. 

Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion sinks them 
beneath the brutes ; that binds them down to a poor pitiable speck 
of perishing earth ; this opens for them a prospect to the skies. 
Temperance and exercise, howsoever little they may be regarded, 
they are the best means of preserving health. To despise others 
on account of their poverty, or to value ourselves for our wealth, 
are dispositions highly culpable. This task was the easier per- 
formed, from the cheerfulness with which he engaged in it. These 
counsels were the dictates of virtue, and the dictates of true honor. 
As his misfortunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy, a few per- 
sons pitied him. And they were judged every man according to 
their works. Riches is the bane of human happiness. I wrote to 
my brother before I received his letter. 

"When the president appeared, I was for some time in doubt 
whether it could be him or not. Are you living contented in 
spiritual darkness] The company was very numerous. Shall 
the throne of iniquity have fellowship with thee, which frameth 
mischief by a law 1 Where is the security that evil habits will be 
«ver broken ] They each bring materials to the place. Nor let 
no comforter delight my ear. She was six years older than him. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 109 

They were obliged to contribute more than us. The Borons had 
little more to rely on, besides the power of their families. The 
sewers must be kept so clear, as the water may run away. Such 
among us who follow that profession. Nobody is so sanguine to 
hope for it. She behaved unkinder than I expected. Agreeable 
to your request I send this letter. She is exceeding fair. Thomas 
is not as docile as his sister. There was no other book but this. 
He died by a fever. Among whom was Mary Magdalene, and 
Mary the mother of James. My sister and I waited till they were 
called. The army were drawn up in haste. The public is re- 
spectfully informed, that. &c. The friends and amusements which 
he preferred corrupted his morals. Each must answer for them- 
selves. Henry, though at first he showed an unwillingness, yet 
afterwards he granted his request. 

Kim and her live very happily together. She invited Jane and 
I to see her new dress. She uttered such cries that pierced the 
heart of every one who heard them. Maria is not as good as her 
sister Ann. Though he promises ever so solemnly, I will not be- 
lieve him. The full moon was no sooner up, in all its brightness, 
but he opened to them the gate of paradise. It rendered the 
progress very slow of the new invention. This book is Thomas', 
that is James'. Socrates's wisdom has been the subject of many 
a conversation. Fare thee well, James. Who, who has the judg- 
ment of a man, would have drawn such an inference] George 
was the most diligent scholar whom I ever knew. I have observed 
some children to use deceit. He durst not to displease his master. 
The hopeless delinquents might, each in their turn, adopt the ex- 
postulatory language of Job. Several of our English words, some 
centuries ago, had different meanings to those they have now. 
And I was afraid, and went and hid thy talent in the earth ; lo, 
there thou hast that is thine. With this booty he made off to a 
distant part of the country, where he had reason to believe that 
neither he nor his master were known. Thine is the kingdom, 
the power, and the glory. I have been at London. 

Which of the two masters, says Seneca, shall we most esteem ? 
He who strives to correct his scholars by prudent advice and mo- 
tives of honor, or another who will lash them severely for not 
repeating their lessons as they ought 1 The blessing of the Lord 
it maketh rich, and he addeth no sorrow with it. For if there be 
first a willing mind, it is accepted according to that a man hath, 
and not according to that he hath not. If a brother or a sister be 
naked and destitute of daily food, and one of you say unto them, 
.Depart in peace, be ye warmed and filled ; notwithstanding, if ye 

10 



110 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

give them not those things which are needful to the body \ what 
doth it profit ] 

But she always behaved with great severity to her maids; and 
if any of them were negligent of their duty, or made a slip in their 
conduct, nothing would serve her but burying the poor girls alive. 
He had no master to instruct him : he had read nothing but the 
writings of Moses and the prophets, and had received no lessons 
from the Socrates's,* the Plato's, and the Confucius's of the age. 
They that honor me, I will honor. For the poor always ye have 
with you. 

The first Christians of the gentile world made a simple and 
entire transition from a state as bad, if not worse, than that of entire 
ignorance, to the Christianity of the New Testament. And he said 
unto Gideon, every one that lappeth of the water with his tongue, 
as a dog lappeth, him shalt thou set by himself. The general had 
not behaved with that courage as was expected. Milton seems to 
have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to know what 
it was that nature had bestowed upon him more bountifully than 
upon others. And on the morrow, because he would have known 
the certainty wherefore he was accused-)- of the Jews, he loosed 
him from his bonds. 

Here rages force, here tremble flight and fear, 
Here storm'd contention, and here fury frown d. 
The Cretan javelin reach'd him from afar, 
And pierced his shoulder as he mounts his car. 

Nor is it then a welcome guest, affording only an uneasy sensa- 
tion, an-il brings always with it a mixture of concern and compas- 
sion. He onlyt promised me a loan of the book for two days. I 
was once thinking to have written a poem. 

A very slow child will often be found to get lessons by heart as 
soon as, nay sometimes sooner, than one who is ten times as intel- 
ligent. It is then from a cultivation of the perceptive faculties, 
that we only can attain those powers of conception which are 
essential to taste. No man is fit for free conversation for the 
inquiry after truth, if he is exceedingly reserved ; if he is haughty 

* The Possessive case must not be used for the plural number. In this 
quotation from Baron Haller's Letters to his Daughter, the proper names 
should have been pluralized like common nouns ; thus, From the Socratescs, 
the Platoes, and the Covf aclases of the age. 

f Accuse requires of before the crime, and by before the person accusing. 

t This sentence expresses one meaning as it stands. It may be made 
to express four by placing only after me, or loan, or book, or days. 






ENGLISH SYNTAX. Ill 

and proud of his knowledge; if he is positive and dogmatical in 
his opinions ; if he is one who always affects to outshine all the 
company ; if he is fretful and peevish ; if he affects wit, and is full 
of puns, or quirks, or quibbles. Conversation is the business, and 
let every one that please add their opinion freely. 

The mean suspicious wretch whose bolted door 
Ne'er moved in duty to the wandering poor; 
With him I left the cup, to teach his mind, 
That Heaven can bless if mortals will be kind. 

There are many more shining qualities in the mind of man, but 
there is none so useful as discretion. Mr. Locke having been 
introduced by Lord Shaftesbury to the Duke of Buckingham and 
Lord Halifax, these three noblemen, instead of conversing with the 
philosopher on literary subjects, in a very short time sat down to 
cards. 

It is your light fantastic fools, who have neither head nor hearts, 
in both sexes, who, by dressing their bodies out of all shape, render 
themselves ridiculous and contemptible. And how can brethren 
hope to partake of their parent's blessing that curse each other. 
The superiority of others over us, though in trivial concerns, never 
fails to mortify our vanity, and give us vexation, as Nicole ad- 
mirably observes. Likewise also the chief priests, mocking, said 
among themselves, with the scribes, He saved others ; himself he 
cannot save. Noah, for his godliness, and his family, were the 
only persons preserved from the flood. It is an unanswerable 
argument of a very refined age, the wonderful civilities that have 
passed between the nation of authors, and that of readers. And 
they said among themselves, who shall roll us away the stone from 
the door of the sepulchre. And when they had looked, they saw 
that the stone was rolled away : for it was very great. A great 
stone that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea-shore, 
served me for an anchor. It is true what he says, but it is not 
applicable to the point. 

The senate of Rome ordered that no part of it should be rebuilt; 
it was demolished to the ground, so that travelers are unable to say 
where Carthage stood at this day. 

Thus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve years after the 
second Punic war, and two after it had been begun. Upon the 
death of Claudius, the young Emperor Nero pronounced his funeral 
oration, and he was canonized among the gods, who scarcely de- 
served the name of a man. Galerius abated much of his severities 
against the Christians on his death-bed, and revoked those edicts 



112 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

which he had formerly published, tending to their persecution, a 
little before his death. The first care of Aurelius was to marry his 
daughter Luciila once more to Claudius Pompeiuxius, a man of 
moderate fortune. But at length, having made his guards accom- 
plices in their design, they set upon Maximin while he slept at 
noon in his tent, and slew both him and his son, whom he had 
made his partner in the empire, without any opposition. Aurelian 
defeated the Marcomanni, a fierce and terrible nation of Germany, 
that had invaded Italy, in three several engagements. 

AMBIGUITY. 

You suppose him younger than I. 

This may mean, either that you suppose him younger than I am, or that 
you suppose him to be younger than 1 suppose him to be. 

Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the father of 
Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he first opened the way 
into Asia. 

Here we are apt to suppose the word himself refers to Parmenio, and 
means that he had not only served Philip, but he had served' himself at 
the same time. This, however, is not the meaning of the passage. If we 
arrange it thus, the meaning will appear. "Parmenio had not only served 
Philip the father of Alexander with great fidelity, but he had served Alex- 
ander himself, and was the first that opened the way for him into Asia." 

Belisarius was general of all the forces under the emperor Jus- 
tinian the First, a man of rare valor. 

Who was a man of rare valor'? The emperor Justinian we should sup- 
pose, from the arrangement of the words; but this is not the case, for it 
was Belisarius. The sentence should have stood thus, " Belisarius, a man 
of rare valor, was general of all the forces under the emperor Justinian 
the First." 

Lisias promised to his father never to abandon his friends. 

Were they his own friends or his father's whom Lisias promised never 
to abandon 1 If his own, it should be, Lisias promised and said to his 
father, I will never abandon my friends. If his father's, it should b >, 
Lisias promised and said to his father, I will never abandon your friends. 

OBSOLETE WORDS. 

Lack ; as, One thing thou lachest ,• obsolete except in allusion 
to Scriptural subjects. 

Tarry >• as, Tarry ye here awhile ; obsolete except in allusion to 
Scriptural subjects, 

Per adventure ,• as, Peradventure he will accept of me ; obsolete 
except in Scripture. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 113 

Hearken ; as, Hearken to my voice; obsolete except in Scripture. 

Motion, for move ; as, I motion that the bill be reconsidered. 

Name, for mention ; as, I named it to you. 

Progress, for advance ,• as, The President progressed through the 
country. It is still more improper to use this word as it is some- 
times used in reference to revivals ; as, The work was progressing. 

Clad, for clothed. It is used by the poets ; as, Clad in armor ; 
but it then expresses something more than would be expressed 
by clothed. 

Stricken, for struck. It is retained by the poets ; as, I was a 
stricken deer. 

It beliooves ; the use of it is a blemish in Hume's history. 

Folk and folks, ought never to be used but in burlesque. 

Obligated, for bound ; as, I felt obligated to him. 

Methinks and methought. These are retained by the poets. 

Jeopardize, for jeopard ; as, Men who jeopardized their lives. 

Memorize, for commit to memory. It was formerly used by the 
English poets, for to make memorable. 

Het, for heated. She het the water. 

Lit, for lighted. The lamp was lit 

Lit, for alighted. The bird lit on that tree. 

Plead, for pleaded. He plead the cause ably. 

Proven, for proved. It is retained by the poets; as, When 
hearts whose truth was proven. 

Swoln, for swelled. Retained by the poets; as, The mountain 
stream, swoln to a torrent. 
Substance, for property. 
Without, for unless ; as, I will not go without you do. 

Except, for unless * as, I will not let thee go except thou bless 
me. 

Then, as an adjective ; as, The then administration ; instead of 
the then existing administration. 
Bating, for omitting. 

Either, for each. There were on either side the river. 
Pending, for during ,• as, Pending these discussions. 
10* 



114 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 



AMERICANISMS. 



Allot upon, for count upon; as, I allot much on returning 
home soon. 

Admire to ; as, I admire to see a man frank. We should say, 
I admire frankness, or, I admire a frank man. 

Applicant, for student ; as, A severe applicant. 

Appreciate, for to rise in value. Hamilton introduced it as the 
contrary of depreciate. 

Balance, for remainder ; as, I spent a part of the evening with 
a friend, and the balance at home. 

Calculate, for design or intend ; as, I calculate to return soon. 

Calculation, for intention. It is my calculation to visit his 
country seat, on my way. 

Reckon, for think or believe ; as, I reckon it will rain to-morrow. 

Guess, for think or believe. It is used in England properly ; 
but in this country its signification has been so perverted that good 
writers drop it altogether. Imagine is a good substitute. 

Cleverly, for well in health ,- as, How is your friend to-day 1 
He is getting along cleverly. 

Considerable, used as a noun ; as, He is considerable of a poet: 
as an adverb ; as, He is considerable sick. 

Creatures, for the animals on a farm • thus, in England they 
say, " We must take care of the stock" In this country we say, 
" We must take care of the creatures." 

Rock. The meaning of the word is, a large mass of stone ,• but 
in the eastern part of New England, and in the southern states, it 
is used to signify small stones ; thus, Those children are throwing 
rocks at each other. 

Creek, for a small river. It is properly an arm of the sea. 

Avails, for proceeds ; as, The avails of the work are devoted, &c. 

To a degree, for to a great degree. 

Derogatory, for derogatory to ; as, His conduct is very dero- 
gatory. 

Desk, for pulpit. In Episcopal churches the desk is the place 
where prayers are read, and the pulpit the place where the sermon 
is preached ; other denominations, who have but one place for both, 
confound the two names — it ought to be avoided. 

Classical. This has been used by some as the adjective of 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 115 

class, instead of the adjective of classic ,- thus, A classical study is 
used to signify a study pursued by a class, instead of a study 
belonging to the classics. 

Scholastic, belonging to the schoolmen, who were persons who 
wrote subtile and philosophical disquisitions; as, The scholastic 
theology, i. e. the theology of the schoolmen. This has been per- 
verted to the signification, belonging to a school; as, The scholastic 
year is ten months. Thus it is made the adjective of school, which 
is highly improper. 

Incident, for liable ; as, The man is incident to certain evils. 
The proper meaning of the word is falling upon. The evils 
might be incident to him ; he could not be incident to them. 

Smart, for able. We point out a person to an Englishman as 
a smart man, and he is amazed. In England the term signifies, 
that a person is extraordinary in his manner of dress ; that he aims 
at elegance in his appearance : in this country it means a man of 
intelligence. 

Temper, for passion,- as, He showed a great deal of temper. 
In this country the phrase means, he showed a great deal of passion. 
In England it means, he showed a great deal oi moderation. The 
latter is correct, and we use the derivatives correctly ; thus, to tern- 
per is to calm : temperance is moderation, not high excitement* 

Honorary, for honorable ; as, An honorary action ; for, An 
honorable action. To say, An honorary degree, is correct ; it 
means, not an honorable degree, but one which is conferred for the 
sake of honoring the individual on whom it is conferred. 

Right, for very ,• as, It rains right hard ; He is a right good 
man. It is used in this way in the southern and middle states. 
It is also used in the same way in the Scriptures ; as, And that 
right early. 

Mighty, for powerful ; as, It took a mighty hold on him. This 
use of it might be sometimes allowed; but it has been already 
overused, and has thus been rendered too common, and will for 
this reason be avoided by all good writers. 

Chance has a strange signification in the southern and middle 
states ; as, A smart chance of rain. It is there used to signify any 
thing that happens accidentally, as it were ; any thing that comes 
not in regular order. 

Like, for as ,• as, Strike like I do ; I feel like I should be sick. 

Heap, for a great deal ; as, I like him a heap. 

Raised, is used thus in the western states : I was obliged to raise 



116 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

the hymn myself; meaning, I was obliged to commence the singing 
of the hymn, &c. 

Lift, for to take up ; as, To lift a contribution. Used thus in 
the western states. 

Badly, for a great deal,- as, I want to see you badly. 

Musical, for humorous ; as, He is a very musical man. This 
phrase was used thirty or forty years ago. 

Expect, used in reference to past or present actions ; as, Has the 
mail arrived '? I expect it has : now we cannot txpect a thing 
which has taken place. The word expect should be used only with 
the future. The future is something of which we are ignorant, 
and we are also ignorant whether the mail has arrived, and there- 
fore we are apt to speak of it as we do of the future. 

Universal, for universalist ; as, A universal preacher. 

Stalled ; as, The horses got stalled, i. e. fastened in the mire. 
Stall is derived from the German word stellen, to fix : hence, to 
stall cattle is to fix cattle in their place for the night, and not to fix 
i in the mire. 

Rolling, for undulating ; as, A rolling country. 

Predicate ; that part of a proposition containing the affirma- 
tion; as, Man is mortal. Here mortality is predicated of man. 
But some say, My argument is predicated on these principles — in 
the sense of founded. We may say, predicated of, but not pre- 
dicated on. 

Span, for pair ; as, A span of horses. To say, The span of 
an arch, is proper, because it signifies the union of the two parts 
which spring from the abutments ; this is the proper meaning of 
the word as derived from espannire, to unite. 

Keep, for lodge ; as, Where do you keep ? Hence we have, 
keeping-room, for drawing-room, or, wiihdrawing-room. Parlor 
is also the proper word for the room where the family reside ; from 
parleur, to talk. 

Likely, for promising ,• as, A likely horse ; A likely negro. Its 
true meaning is probable. 

Poorly, for unwell; as, He is very pobrly. 

Raise. The English speak of raising cattle — we speak of raising 
men; as, He was bred and raised, or educated; we also say, to 
raise a committee for, to appoint. 

Awful, for disagreeable ; as, He has an awful nose. 

Grand, used vulgarly ; as, A grand fellow. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 



117 



Vcrhj, for bad, or ill-tempered ; as, An ugly fellow. The true 
meaning is, destitute of personal beauty. 

To take the floor, we say in America. In England, to occupy 
the floor, or', the attention of the House. 

Sauce means a compound to give relish ; we use it to mean 
vegetables. 

Hack, for hackney coach ; as, He is gone to ride in a hack. In 
England, hack means a worn-out horse. 

Offset, for set-off. As an offset to that argument, is the Ameri- 
can phrase. As a set-off, &c. is the English phrase. 

Sidthill, for hillside. 

Lay, used as the participle of to lie ; as, I was laying on the 
floor. 

Set, used as a neuter verb ; as, Set down. Set is active ; as, To 
set out trees. Sit is neuter ; as, To sit down. 

Rising ; as, Rising of six years. 

Approbate, for to approve; as, He was approbated as a preacher. 

Country, for jmh* o/a country; as, The western eocm//^, for 
the western part of the country. The country is the whole extent 
of the nation. 

Back and forth, for backwards and forwards ; as, He was walk- 
ing back and forth. 

Belittle, meaning, to make small, or degrade. 

Grocery, for grocery store; as, He set up a grocery. Grocery 
is the thing sold. 

Betterment, for improvement. 

Bread stuffs, for grain. Introduced by Hamilton. 

Carriage, for chaise. A carriage is any four-wheeled vehicle. 

Deputize, for to depute. The former perhaps is as good a word, 
but it is not authorized by the use of good writers. 

Composuist, for one who composes. Used in the eastern col- 
leges. To write composition is improper, for composition is the 
thing written, and the phrase therefore means, to write writing. 
To write a composition, is correct. 
Dutyable, for liable to duty. 
Educational, for pertaining to education. 
Eventuate, for to result. 
To fall trees, for to fell trees. 



118 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

My fellow countrymen, for my countrymen. 

Illy, for ill ; as, He was illy prepared.* 

Seaboard, for seacoast. 

Monetary, for monied ,• as, Monetary system; for, monied sys- 
tem. Introduced by Hamilton. 

Missionate, for to go as a missionary. A term invented in this 
country. 

Preventative, for preventive. Most nouns formed from verba 
end in ative, but use has decided that this should not. 

Repetitious, a word coined here ; and one for which we have no 
perfect substitute. Thus, if we say of a person's style, that it is 
repetitious, we mean not that it is prolix, which signifies too many 
superfluous ideas; nor that it is verbose, which signifies too many 
words ; but that it is marked by a frequent repetition of the same 
thought. 

Spell, for turn ,• as, A cold spell of weather ; We will give him 
a good spell. 

Turnpike, for turnpike road; as, I walk on the Lancastei 
turnpike. The turnpike is the bar which turns on the pike irk 
the gate. 

Meeting, for meeting-house. The English only have fallen 
into this error. Thus they say, We have just built a meeting. 

To fellowship, for to agree with, or, to have fellowship with; 
as, I cannot fellowship with that opinion. 

Publishment, for declaration of the banns of marriage. In- 
vented in this country. 

Truthful, used vulgarly : no word but veracious to supply its 
place. 

To write over, instead of under ; as, He wrote over the signa- 
ture of Junius ; because, say they who use this phrase, what he 
wrote was over the signature. Under my hand and seal, is the 
true old-fashioned English phrase,'and it is correct, for the hand 
and seal comes down on the writing. 

Renewedly, for again ; as, We come renewedly into Thy pre- 
sence : used thus in prayer, and very incorrectly. 

Authority, for authorities ; as, Authority of a college. This 
would convey to an Englishman an idea of some peculiar preroga- 
tive of the college, (if he understood it at all.) Civil authority 
has become technical in Connecticut. 

* There are many other adjectives which qualify as adverbs. See 
page 85. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 119 

1 Selectman, also, is peculiar to Connecticut. 

Bottom land, for meadow, or, flat land on the side of a river. 

Any, for at all; as, Was he injured any ? 

Got and Get, to signify mere possession ; as, Have you got a 
:nife 1 instead of, Have you a knife ? 

Had'nt ought, for ought not ; as, You had'nt ought to. 

Clear out, for go away, is very vulgar. 

Hold on, for wait or stop, is very vulgar. 

If for though ; as, I feel as if it was so. 

So as to, awkwardly combined ; as, He did it so as to, for, he so 
lid it as to. 

Such a large, for so la^ge a ; as, Such a large company, for, so 
large a company. Such and a ought to be separated. 

Community, for the community. The word has not yet be- 
come technical so as to admit of being used without the article, 
[t is proper to say, injurious to society ; but not proper to say, 
injurious to community. 

Peck, for peep ; to look by stealth. A New England perversion. 

To slam, for to shut violently. 

Peel and slice, for flreshovel. 

To swap, for to exchange. 

B-g, for great. Thus, in the West we hear, The big Sandy , 
The big man ; The tn'g tent. 

Have, used too frequently ; as, I want to have you come ; I did'nt 
have an opportunity ; Will you let me have your chaise. 

Carry, for fake, and hang, for fasten ; as, Carry the horse to 
the blacksmith's, and hang him to the post. 

Heft, for weight ; derived from heavy. 

To Heft ; to lift for the purpose of ascertaining the weight; as, 
I hefted it. 

Gawk ; a Scotch word ; as, A great gawky. 

Muggy, for murky ; as, The air is muggy. 

Some, for somewh'U ; as, Some better. 

Gd a gtting and Set a going, have become very vulgar. They 
are occasionally used in England. 

AH of a piece ,- as, It is all of a piece with his conduct. An 
old English phrase. It should be avoided. 

Under the sun. Used too much. 



120 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

Chalked out, for marked out. 

Leave, used as a neuter verb ; as, When did you leave ? for, 
"When did you leave home] It should always have the object 
following it. This error appears to be creeping in of late. 

Leave, for let ; as, Leave me be. Leave that alone. 

Inform, used as a neuter instead of an active verb ; as, Captain 
S. Informs that the arrival, &c. instead of, informs us. 

You don't, for you don't say so ; vulgar. 

So be that, for provided that ; as, I will, so be that I can. 

He tries his hand ; a vulgar phrase. 

Takes place and took place ,- too much used. 

It is the case, or, // is the case that ; too much used. 

Supply, used as a neuter verb ; as, He is supplying at Brook- 
lyn, for, supplying the pulpit. 

Duty, for my duty ; as, I wish I could learn what duty is. 

Consider ; as, I consider that it is a wise measure. This faulty 
use of consider, (in omitting us,) was introduced by Lord Brougham. 

Consider, is almost always followed by as ; it may sometimes, 
though rarely, be omitted. The error is, that it is too often omit- 
ted ; as, I consider it true, for, as true. 

Jurisprudence, for law ; peculiar to America. 

Differ from, not with. I may differ with a second person from 
a third person, but I cannot differ with another alone. 

Militates against, not ivlth, 

T<t arrive to, instead of, to arrive at ; as, The conclusion to 
which we have arrived. 

Averse from, instead of, averse to. 

Equally as, is always wrong. We should say, equally with. 

Worthy, for worthy of; as, Objects worthy attention. 

///, for into; as, I got in the stage; Came m-town. In some 
parts of the country we hear, I have not seen you in six months, 
for, for six months, ft is a frequent remark among educated men, 
that the Americans seem to have no into. 

This ivilderness world, used among clergymen. 

Otherlike ; as, Otherlike than I expected. 

Wilt Thou be in our midst, for in the midst of us. This use 
has sprung up within four or five years, among clergymen. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 121 

In conformity to, for in conformity with. But we must say, 
to conform to, not to conform with. 

In accordance to, for in accordance with. 

Esteem of was used by old writers : we say, esteem for ; the 
latter is correct. 

Confide on, for confide in. 

Independent on, for independent of 

Those seeking, for those who seek. 

Ttwse living on the other side of the river, for those who live. 

They began ascending, for they began to ascend. • 

Different than, for different from. Used by English writers. 

Shifting horses, for changing. 

Sundown, for sunset. 

Lot, for homelot. 

Chosen by lot, is very properly used in conversation. 

Clapboard, for pale. 

The following are- words not adopted in England, 
but used so extensively here that they cannot be ban- 
ished from our language. 

Bootable waters. Waters on which boats pass, and ships do 
not. 

Boating ; conveying in boats. 

Bankbill, for banknote. Bankbill in England is a post note, 
and does not pass into the general currency. 

Brush, for small limbs of trees. 

Chequers, for draughts. 

Shingles, the rough loose gravel covering the beach. 

Clever, in England, means intellectual adroitness and dexterity 
next below that of real genius. Here, clever means moral excel- 
lence ; there it refers wholly to the intellect. 

Clothier. In x^merica, one who dresses cloth. In England, one 
who manufactures cloth. 

Caucus ; a meeting held for consultation in a large city, derived 
from, a room occupied by caulkers. 

Congress, congressional, 

11 



122 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

Hudson river, we say in America, putting the name first; river 
Thames, they say in England, putting the name last. We do the 
same in respect to European names. 

Berks, Worcester, or Hampshire county, we say in America; 
in England they say Berks, Worcester, or Hampshire, omitting 
the word county. 

Groceries, in America ; grocery, in England. 

We burn coal, in America ; We burn coals, in England. 

For sale, in America ; On sale, in England. 

To sell at auction, in America ; To sell by auction, in England; 
i. e. by auction or increase of price. 

Cracker ; a hard cake. 

Com. The corn laws in England prohibit the importation of 
wheat, rye, oats, when wheat is below 64 shillings the quarter. 
Corn there denotes all kinds of grain. 

Staging, for scaffolding. 

To deed land, for to convey land. 

Driver, for coachman. 

Freshet, meaning, rise in river. 

Notify of, for notify to. 

Girdle trees ; in England they never have occasion to do it. 

Hub, for nave. 

Locate, for to place. 

Location, for situation. 

Lot, for field. 

Fall, for autumn. 

Portage, for carrying place ; Portage of a river. 

Rapids, applied to rivers. 

Scow, for lighter ; a flat-bottomed boat. Scow is derived from 
the Dutch. 

Stage, for stage-coach. In England, stage is the space gone 
over : as To ride one stage. 

Clergymen, in England, is confined to ministers of the esta- 
blished Church. 

Store, in England, is a place where goods are stored. 
Shop, in England, is the place where goods are sold* 
Bookstore, for bookseller's shop. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 123 

Merchant, in America, is applied to any respectable dealer ; in 
England it denotes a commercial man. 
Subscriber, for undersigned. 
Wilt, for wither. 
Wharves, for wharfs. The English say wharfs. 

TAUTOLOGY. 

Tautology, or the repetition of a thought or word, 
already fully expressed, is improper. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The latter end of that man shall be peace. 

Whenever I try to improve, I always find I can do it. 

I saw it in here. 

He was in here yesterday when I spoke to him. 

Give me both of them books. 

They both met. 

I never fail to read, whenever I can get a book. 

You must return back immediately. 

First of all I shall say my lesson. 

Before I do that, I must first finish this. 

He plunged down into the water. 

Read from here to there. 

Lift up your book. He mentioned it over again. 

This was the worst accident of all others. 

I ran after him a little way ; but soon returned back again. 

I cannot tell for why he did it. 

Learn from hence to study the Scriptures diligently. 

Where shall I begin from when I read ] 

We must do this last of all. Hence therefore I say. 

I found nobody eke but him there. 

Smoke ascends up into the clouds. 

We hastily descended down from the mountain. 

He raised up his arm to strike me. 

We were mutually friendly to each other. 



124 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

It should ever be your constant study to do good, 

As soon as I awoke I rose up and dressed myself. 

I leave town in the latter end of July. 

I am conscious to myself. 

IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS. 

Do you mind how many chapters are in Job ! — remember. 

The wool is cheaper ; — but the cloth is as dear as ever — omit 
the in both places. 

They gained five shillings the piece by it — apiece. 

A letter conceived in the following words — expressed. 

He behaved in a very gentlemanny manner — gentlemanly. 

A momentuous circumstance — momentous. 

You will some day repent it — one day repent of it. 

At tbe expiry of his lease — expiration. 

If I had ever so much in my offer — choice. 

Have you any word to your brother — message. 

The cock is a noisy beast — fowl. 

Direct your letters to me at Mr. T's, Philadelphia — address. 

He took a fever — was seized with a fever. 

He was lost in the river — drowned. 

If I am not mistaken — If I mistake not. 

He proposes to buy an estate — purposes. 

I shall notice a few particulars — mention. 

Will I help you to a bit of beef — shall. 

Will we see you next week] — shall. 

A stupenduous work — stupendous. 

A tremenduous work — tremendous. 

I mind none of them things — those. 

Don't let on to any body — do not mention it to any onu 

He stops there — stays, dwells, lodges. 
My every hope, should be All my hopes. 
Frequent opportunity. Frequent opportunities. 

He put it in his pocket. He put it into his pocket 

All over the country. Over all the country. 

Be that as it will. Be that as it may. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 



125 



About two years back. 

It lays on the table. 

I turned them topsy-turvy. 

I catch'd it. 

Overseer over his house. 

Opposite the church. 

A new pair of gloves. 
! A young beautiful woman. 
i Where do you come from 1 

Where are you going 1 

For such another fault. 
' Of consequence. 
, Having not considered it. 

I had rather not. 

I'd as lief. 

For good and all. 

This here house, says I. 

Where is it ] says I, to him. 

I propose to visit them. 

He spoke contemptibly of me. 

I heard them pro & con. 

I an't hungry. 

I want a scissors. 

A new pair of shoes. 

I saw him some ten years ago. 

I fell in with him. 

The subject matter. 

I add one more reason. 

I cannot go the day — to-day. 

Sweet butter — fresh. 

I got timous notice — timely. 

A summer's day — summer day. 

An oldish lady — elderly. 

Close the door — shut. 

Let him be — alone. 

1 



About two years ago. 

It lies on the table. 

I overturned them. 

I caught it. 

Overseer of his house. 

Opposite to the church. 

A pair of new gloves. 

A beautiful young woman. 

Whence do you come 1 

Whither are you going] 

For another such fault. 

Consequently. 

Not having considered it. 

I would rather not. 

I would as soon. 

Absolutely and entirely. 

This house, said I. 

Where is it 1 said I, to him. 

I purpose to visit them. 

He spoke contemptuously of me. 

I heard both sides. 

I am not hungry. 

I want a pair of scissors. 

A pair of new shoes. 

I saw him ten years ago. 

I met with him. 

The subject. 

I add one reason more. 

Take a drink — draught. 

A pair of partridges — a brace. 

A milk cow — milch. 

He lays in bed till nine — lies. 

Give me them books — these. 

This 'ere boy — this boy. 

It is bran new — quite. 

1* 



126 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 

Will I help you 1— shall That 'ere man—that man. 

Shall James come again ? — will. His is far neater — much. 

I an't angry— I am not. That's no possible— not. 

That 'are house — that house. I shall go the morn — to-morrow. 

I see'd him yesterday — saw. Is your papa in]— within. 

Did you teir on him— of. Come, say away — come, proceed. 

I knowed that— knew. Shall they return soon— Will. 

She turned sick— grew. Will we go home now 1— -Shall. 

He is turned tall— grown. He don't do it well— does not. 

Avoid the following phrases. — Fell to work; wherewithal!; 
quoth he ; do away ; long winded ; chalked out ; pop out ; must 
needs; got rid of; handed down; self same; pell mell ; that's 
your sort ; tip him the wink ; pitched upon. 

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 

1. When and is understood, the verb must be plural ; as, Wis- 
dom, happiness, (and) virtue, dwell with the golden mediocrity. 

Some think, that when two singular nouns, coupled with and, 
are nearly the same in meaning, the verb may be singular; as, 
Tranquillity and peace dwells there. Ignorance and negligence 
has produced this effect. This, however, is improper ; for tran- 
quillity and peace are two nouns or names, and two make a plural; 
therefore the verb should be plural. 

2. Two or more nominatives in the singular, connected by and, 
require a verb in the singular number, when they denote only one 
person or thing ; as, That able scholar and critic has been emi- 
nently useful. 

3. Many writers use a plural noun after the second of two nu- 
meral adjectives ; thus, The first and second pages are torn. This 
is improper : it should be, The first and second page, i. e. the first 
page and the second page are torn :— are, perhaps ; because inde- 
pendently of and, they are bath in a torn state. Generation, hour 
and ward are singular in Exodus xx. 5. Matt. xx. 5. Acts xii. 
10.— See Rule III. 

And and Not. 

4. When not is joined to and, the negative clause forms a 
parenthesis, and does not affect the construction of the other clause 
or clauses ; therefore, the verb in the following and similar sen 
tences should be singular. Genuine piety, and not great riches. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 127 

makes a death-bed easy ; i. e. Genuine piety makes a death-bed 
easy, and great riches do not make it easy. Her prudence, not 
her possessions, renders her an object of desire. — See Rule III. 

Every, And. 

5. When the nominatives connected by and are qualified by 
Every, the verb should be singular ,• as, Every man and woman 
was astonished at her fortitude. Every boy and girl was taught 
to read.— See Rule XII. Obs. 3. 

With and And. 

6. When a singular nominative has a clause joined to it by 
with, it is often difficult to determine whether the verb should be 
singular or plural, especially as the best authors use sometimes 
the one and 1 sometimes the other: for example, some would say, 
My uncle, with his son, was in town yesterday. Others would 
say, My uncle, with his son, were in town yesterday. 

If we take the sense for our guide, and nothing else can guide 
us in a case of this kind, it is evident that the verb should be plural; 
for both uncle and son are the joint subjects of our affirmation, and 
are declared to be both in the same state. 

When we perceive from the sense, that the noun before With is 
exclusively the real subject, then the verb should be singular ,« thus, 
Christ, with his three chosen disciples, was transfigured on the 
mount. Here the verb is singular, because we know that none 
but Christ was transfigured ; the disciples were not joint associates 
with him; they were mere spectators. There seems to be an 
ellipsis in such sentences as this, which, in the present example 
might be supplied thus : Christ, (who was attended) with his three 
chosen disciples, was transfigured on the mount. 

Murray, however, thinks that the verb should be singular in the 
following and similar sentences. "Prosperity, with humility, ren- 
ders its possessors truly amiable." " The side A, with the sides B 
and C, composes the triangle." On the contrary, the verb should 
certainly be plural. For, in the first sentence, it is not asserted 
that prosperity alone renders its possessor truly amiable, but pros- 
perity and humility united, and co-operating to produce an effect 
in their joint state, which they were incapable of achieving in their 
individual capacity. 

If true, as Murray says, that " the side A," in the second sen- 
tence, is the true nominative to the verb, then it follows, of course, 
that the two sides, B and C, have no agency or no share in form- 
ing the triangle, and consequently that the side A alone composes 



128 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 



the triangle. It is obvious, however, that one side cannot form a 
triangle or three-sided figure, and that the sides B and C are as 
much concerned in forming the triangle as the side A, and there- 
lore the verb should he plural. 

Upon the whole, we may venture to give the two following 
general rules. ** 

1. That wherever the noun or pronoun after With either exists 
or acts jointly with the singular nominative before it, the verb 
should be plural; as, "She with her sisters are well." "His 
purse, with its contents, were abstracted from his pocket." "The 
general with his men were taken prisoners." In these sentences 
the verb is plural, because the words after With are as much the 
subject of discourse as the words before it,— her sisters were well 
as well as she ; the contents, as well as the purse, were abstracted ; 
and the men, as well as the general, were taken prisoners. If, in 
the first example, we say— is well, then the meaning will be, she 
is well when m company with her sisters: and the idea that her 
sisters are well, will be entirely excluded. 

. 2. When the noun after with is a mere involuntary or inanimate 
instrument, the verb should be singular; as, The captain with 
his men catches poor Africans and sells them for slaves. The 
hunter with his hounds kills a fox. Here the verb is singular, 
because the men and hounds are not joint agents with the captain 
and the hunter; they are as much the mere instruments in their 
hands as the gun and pen in the hands of He and She in the fol- 
lowing sentences. He with his gun shoots a hare. She with her 
pen writes a letter.— See Rule III. 

Of the Articles with several Adjectives. 
A or the is prefixed only to the first of several adjectives qualify- 
ing one noun; as, A meek and holy man: but the article should 
be repeated, before each adjective, when each adjective relates to a 
generic word applicable to every one of the adjectives. For ex- 
ample, " The black and white cows were sold yesterday ; the red 
will be sold to-morrow." *; 

Here cows is the generic word, applicable to each of the adjec- 
tives black, white, and red, but for want of the before white, we 
are led to suppose that the black and white cows means only one 
sort, which are speckled with spots of black and white; and if this 
is our meaning, the sentence is right: but if we mean /^different 
sorts, the one all black and the other all white, we should insert 
the article before both; and say, The black and the white cows, 
*. e. 1 he black cows and the white cows were sold. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 129 

Some think this distinction of little importance ; and it is really 
seldom attended to even by good writers ; but in some cases it is 
necessary ; although in others there cannot, from the nature of the 
thing, be any mistake. In the following sentence, for instance, the 
repetition of the before horned is not necessary, although it would 
be proper. "The bald and homed, cows were sold last week." 
Here there can be no mistake, two sorts w-ere sold ; for a cow can- 
not be bald and horned too. 

This— That, 

The same remark may be made respecting this and that, that 

has been made respecting the articles ; as, " That great and good 

man," means only one man : but that great and that good man 

would mean two men; the one a gi*eat man the other a good man. 

They— Those.' 
They stands for a noun already introduced, and should never be 
used till the noun is mentioned, Those, on the contrary, points 
out a noun not previously introduced, but generally understood. 
It is improper therefore to say, They who tell lies are never es- 
teemed. They that are truly good must be happy. We should 
say, Those who tell lies, and those that are truly good ; because we 
are pointing out a particular class of persons, and not referring to 
nouns previously introduced. A noun when not expressed after 
this, that, these, and those, may be always understood. 

Another — One — Every. 

Another corresponds to one,- but not to some nor to every. 
Thus, " Handed down from every writer of verses to another" 
should be, From one writer of verses to another. "At some hour 
or another," should be, At some hour or other. 

One is often used in familiar phrases (like on in French) for 
ice or any one of us indiscriminately ; Thus, One is often more 
influenced by example than by precept. The verb and pronoun 
with which one agrees should be singular. Thus, If one takes a 
wrong method at first, it will lead them astray : should be, It will 
lead one astray, or it will lead him astray. 

That— Those. 
It is improper to apply that and those to things present or just 
mentioned. Thus, " They cannot be separated from the subject 
which follows; and for that reason," &c. should be, And for this 
reason, &c. " Those sentences which we have at present before 
us ;" should be, These, or the sentences which we have, &c, 



PUNCTUATION. 



Punctuation is the marking of the several pauses 
which are to be observed in reading or speaking a sen- 
tence or continued discourse, in such a manner as may 
naturally lead to its proper meaning, construction, anc 
delivery. 

THE COMMA. 

Rule I. 

A simple sentence in general requires only a ful 
stop at the end ; as, True politeness has its seat in the 
heart. 

Rule II. 

The simple members of a compound sentence are 
separated by a comma ; as, Crafty men contemn stu- 
dies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them. 
He studies diligently, and makes great progress. 

Rule III. 
The persons in a direct address are separated from 
the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, My son, give 
me thine heart. Colonel, Your most obedient. I 
thank you, sir. I am obliged to you, my friends, for 
your kindness. 

Rule IV. 

Two words of the same part of speech, whether 
nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs, do not 
admit of a comma between them, when connected by 
a conjunction ; as, James and John are good. She is 
wise and virtuous. Religion expands and elevates 

130 



PUNCTUATION. 131 

jthe mind. By being admired and flattered, she be- 
came vain. Cicero spoke forcibly and fluently. 
When the conjunction is suppressed, a comma is in- 
serted in its place ; as, He was a plain, honest man. 

Rule V. 

Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, 
or adverbs, in succession are separated by commas; as, 
The sun, the moon, and the stars, are the glory of nature. 

When words follow in pairs, there is a comma be- 
tween each pair; as, Truth is fair and artless, simple 
and sincere, uniform and constant. 

Rule VI. 

All phrases or explanatory sentences, whether in the 
beginning, middle, or end of a simple sentence, are 
separated from it by commas ; as, To confess the truth, 
I was in fault. His father dying, he succeeded to the 
estate. The king, approving the plan, put it in exe- 
cution. Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent 
for his zeal and knowledge. George the Third, king 
of Great Britain. I have seen the emperor, as he was 
called. In short, he was a great man. 

Rule VII. 

The verb to be, followed by an adjective, or an 
infinitive with adjuncts, is generally preceded by a 
comma ; as, To be diligently employed in the per- 
formance of real duty, is honorable. One of the noblest 
of the Christian virtues, is to love our enemies. 

Rule VIII. 

A comma is used between the two parts of a sentence 
that has its natural order inverted; as, Him that is 
weak in the faith, receive ye. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule IX. 

Any remarkable expression resembling a quotation 
or a command, is preceded by a comma ; as, There is 
much truth in the proverb, Without pains no sains. 
I say unto all, Watch. 

Rule X. 
Relative pronouns admit of a comma before them in 
some cases, and in some not. 

m When several words come between the relative and 
its antecedent,* a comma is inserted ; but not in other 
cases ; as There is no charm in the female sex, which 
can supply the place of virtue. It is labor only which 
gives the relish to pleasure. The first beauty of style 
is propriety, without which all ornament is puerile 
and superfluous. It is barbarous to injure those from 
whom we have received a kindness. 

Rule XL 

A comma is often inserted where a verb is under- 
stood, and particularly before- wo*, but, and though, in 
such cases as the following; as, John has acquired 
much knowledge; his brother, (has acquired) little. 
A man ought to obey reason, not appetite. He was a 
great poet but a bad man. The sun is up, though he 
is not visible. to 

A comma is sometimes inserted between the two 
members of a long sentence connected by compara- 
tives ; as, Better is little with the fear of the Lord 
than great treasure and trouble therewith. As thy 
days, so shall thy strength be. 

Rule ,XII. 
It has been stated, in Rule VI. that explanatory 
words and phrases, such as perfectly, indeed, doubt- 



PUNCTUATION. 133 

less, formerly, in fine, &c. should be separated from 
the context by a comma. 

Many adverbs, however, and even phrases, when 
they are considered of little importance, should not be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, 
Be ye therefore perfect. Per adventure ten shall be 
found there. All things indeed are pure. Doubtless 
thou art our father. They w ere formerly very studious. 
He was at last convinced of his error. Be not ye 
therefore partakers with them. Nevertheless the poor 
man's wisdom is despised. Anger is in a manner 
like madness. At length some pity warmed the mas- 
ter's breast. 

These twelve rules respecting the position of the comma, include 
every thing, it is presumed, to be found in the more numerous rules 
of larger volumes. But it is impossible to make them perfect. 
For, " In many instances, the employment, or omission of a comma, 
depends upon the length, or the shortness of a clause, the presence 
or absence of adjuncts : the importance or non-importance of the 
sentiment." Indeed, with respect to punctuation, the practice of the 
best writers is extremely arbitrary ; many omitting some of the 
usual commas when no error in sense, or in construction, is likely 
to arise from the omission. Good sense and attentive observation 
are more likely to regulate this subject than any mechanical direc- 
tions. 

The best general rule is, to point in such a manner as to make 
the sense evident. 



THE SEMICOLON. 

The semicolon is used to separate two members of a 
sentence less dependent on each other than those sepa- 
rated by the comma. 

Sometimes the two members have a mutual depend- 
ence on one another, both in sense and syntax ; some- 
times the preceding member makes complete sense of 
itself, and only the following one is dependent; and 
sometimes both seem to be independent. 
12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

As coals are to burning coals, and wood to fire ; so is a conten- 
tious man to kindle strife. As a roaring lion and a ranging bear ; 
so is a wicked ruler over the poor people. Mercy and truth pre- 
serve the king; and his throne is upheld by mercy. He that 
loveth pleasure shall be a poor man ; he that loveth wine and oil 
shall not be rich. Philosophy asserts, that Nature is unlimited in 
her operations ; that she has inexhaustible stores in reserve ; that 
knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future genera- 
tions will continue to make discoveries, of which we have not the 
least idea. 

The semicolon is sometimes employed to separate simple mem- 
bers in which even no commas occur : thus, The pride of wealth 
is contemptible ; the pride of learning is pitiable ; the pride of dig- 
nity is ridiculous ; and the pride of bigotry is insupportable. 

Note. — In every one of these members the construction and sense are 
complete; and a period might have been used instead of the semicolon. 
The latter is preferred merely because the sentences are short and form a 
climax. 



THE COLON. 

The colon is used when the preceding part of the 
sentence is complete in sense and construction ; and 
the following part is some remark naturally arising 
from it ; and depending on it in sense, though not in 
construction ; as, Study to acquire the habit of think- 
ing : no study is more important. 

A colon is often used before an example or a quota- 
tion ; as, the Scriptures give us an amiable representa- 
tion of the Deity in these words : God is love. He 
was often heard to say : I have done with the world, 
and I am willing to leave it. 

A colon is generally used where the sense is com- 
plete in the first clause, and the next begins with a 
conjunction understood ; as, Do not flatter yourselves 
with the hope of perfect happiness : there is no such 
thing in the world. Had the conjunction, for, been 
expressed, a semicolon would have been used ; th 



PUNCTUATION. 135 

Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect hap- 
piness ; for there is no such thing in the world. 

The colon is generally used when the conjunction 
is understood ; and the semicolon, when the conjunc- 
tion is expressed. 

Note— This observation has not always been attended to in pointing 
the Psalms and some parts of the Liturgy. In them, a colon is often used 
merely to divide the verse, it would seem, into two parts, to suit a par- 
ticular species of church-music called chanting; as, "My tongue is the 
pen : of a ready writer." In reading, a csesural pause, in such a place as 
this, is enough. In the Psalms, and often in the Proverbs, the colon must 
be read like a semicolon, or even like a comma, according to the sense. 

THE PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete in construction and 
sense, it is marked with a period ; as, Jesus wept. 

A period is sometimes admitted between sentences 
connected by such words as but, and, for, therefore, 
hence, &c. Example : And he arose and came to his 
father. But when he was yet a great way off, &c. 

All abbreviations end with a period ; as, A. D. 

CAPITALS. 

1. The first word of every book, or any other piece 
of writing, must begin with a capital letter. 

2. The first word after a period, and the answer to 
a question, must begin, &c. 

3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places, 
ships, &c. t 

4. The pronoun /, and the interjection 0, are writ- 
ten in capitals. I 

5. The first word of every line in poetry. 

6. The appellations of the Deity; as, God, Most 
High, &c. 

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of 
places ; as, Grecian, Roman, English, &c. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a 
colon ; as, Always remember this ancient maxim : 
"Know thyself." 

9. Common nouns when personified ; as, Come, 
gentle Spring. 

OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN COMPOSITION. 
Interrogation (?) is used when a question is asked. 
Admiration (!) or Exclamation, is used to express any sudden 

emotion of the mind. 
Parenthesis ( ) is used to enclose some necessary remark in the 

body of another sentence : commas are now used instead 

of Parentheses. 

Apostrophe ( ' ) is used in place of a letter or letters left out ; as, 
arch'd for arched ; tho f for though ,• 'tis for it is : or in 
the possessive case ; as, John's, mothers'. 

Caret (a) is used to show that some word is either omitted or 
interlined. 

Hyphen (-) is used at the end of the line, to show that the rest of 
the word is at the beginning of the next line. It also 
connects compound words; as, Teapot. 

Section (§) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions. 

Paragraph (!) is used to denote the beginning of a new subject. 

Crotchets [ ], or Brackets, are used to enclose a word or sentence 
which is to be explained in a note, or the explanation 
itself, or to correct a mistake, or supply some deficiency. 

Quotation (" ") is used to show that a passage is quoted in the 
author's words. 

Index ((£/*) is used to point out any thing remarkable. 

Brace $ * s use( * t0 connect wor( ^ s which have one common term, 
i or three lines in poetry, having the same rhyme, called 
a triplet. 

Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted ; as, K — g 

for King. 

Acute accent (') is used to denote a short syllable. 

Grave accent Q) is used to denote a long syllable. 

Breve (") marks a short vowel or syllable. 

The Dash (") marks a long vowel or syllable. 



PUNCTUATION. 137 

Diasresis ( ") is used to divide a diphthong into two syllables ; as, 

aerial. 
Asterisk (*') — Obelisk (■(■) — Double dagger (±) — and Parallels (||) 

with small letters and figures, refer to some note on the 

margin, or at the bottom of the page. 
(***) Two or three asterisks denote the omission of some sentence 

or sentences ; or they denote the omission of some letters 

in some bold or indelicate expression. 
Dash ( ) is used to denote abruptness — a significant pause — 

an unexpected turn in the sentiment — or that the first 

clause is common to all the rest, as in this definition of 

a dash. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Entreat me not to leave thee or to return from following after 
thee for whither thou goest I will go and where thou lodgest I will 
lodge thy people shall be my people and thy God my God where 
thou diest will I die and there will I be buried the Lord do so to 
me and more also if aught but death part thee and me. 

It was a bright morning and as he passed where the trees glis- 
tened with dewdrops and the birds were filling the scene with 
melody he communed in meekness and calm repose of spirit with 
his own soul and with God. He was laid in a grave among the 
palms on the bank of the Ganges where soft winds breathed over 
him and the sound of waters murmured to his rest. Instead there- 
fore of manifesting a constant suspicion of them as tending con- 
tinually to falseness and evil she showed that wrong-doing would 
not only grieve but disappoint her. 

What then are we better than they no in no wise for we have 
before proved both jews and gentiles that they are all under sin as 
it is written there is none righteous no not one. 

Then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written death 
is swallowed up in victory o death where is thy sting o grave 
where is thy victory 1 

Seal not the sayings of the prophecy of this book for the time is 
at hand he that is unjust let him be unjust still and he that is filthy 
let him be filthy still and he that is righteous let him be righteous 
still and he that is holy let him be holy still. 

There is a glory in the close of such a day when the sun is 
sinking unclouded and majestic in the west and when after a day 
of rapid growth and rejoicing in his beams there is spread over 
12* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nature the aspect of repose. He was of middle age of commanding 
mien of a mild and benign countenance now dignified by incipient 
baldness. 

Free in the loftiest sense of freedom free to do all good restricted 
only from evil every man pursuing the unobstructed course pointed 
out by his genius or his fortune every man protected by laws in- 
violable or whose violation was instantly visited with punishment 
by the Eternal Sovereign alike of ruler and people. 

But tears are a debt we owe to departed friends and a debt to 
nature is a debt to God it ought to be it must be paid and they 
will flow till time dispels those clouds which feed them and dries 
up every source of grief. 

The anxieties and burdens of youth were now to be shared and 
they found the same sympathy in the hour of some quiet occupa- 
tion when the other members of the family were away the son un- 
folded his wishes and plans as he could unfold them to none but a 
mother and while every feeling was understood there was no irri- 
tating opposition where assent could not be given nor any feeble 
and unprincipled acquiescence but there is magic in the power of 
a friendly heart when judgment and principle are present to com- 
mand respect there is that particularly in the intercourse of a manly 
son with a loved and honored mother which is unknown in any 
other relation with the father he may meet indeed on terms of 
generous intercourse and confiding affection but it is the intercourse 
of man with man the independent spirit the rebuke of wrong the 
high-toned assertion of opinion or of right these give to the whole 
a different hue but let the noble hearted son meet the mother and 
all is changed such a spirit feels the sacred ness of woman's sensi- 
bilities it disdains to conduct harshly or insolently and then the 
mother it is a word of tenderness of delicate sympathies of untiring 
beneficence it softens the spirit. 

But few exercises have been subjoined to the Rules on Punctuation ; 
because none can be given equal to those which the pupil can 'prescribe 
for himself. After he has learned the rules, let him transcribe a piece 
from any good author, omitting the points and capitals; and then, having 
pointed his manuscript, and restored the capitals, let him compare his 
own punctuation with the author's. 



PROSODY. 



Prosody is that part of grammar which teaches the 
true pronunciation of words; comprising Accent, Quan- 
tify, Emphasis, Pause, and Tone, and the measure 
of Verses. 

Accent is the laying of a greater force on one sylla- 
ble of a word than on another ; as, Surmount' . 

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is 
occupied in pronouncing it. Quantity is either long 
or short ; as, Consume. 

Emphasis is a remarkable stress laid upon certain 
words in a sentence, to distinguish them from the rest; 
as, Apply yourself more to acquire knowledge than to 
shoio it.* 

A pause is either a total cessation or a short suspen- 
sion of the voice, during a perceptible space of time ; 
as, Reading — makes a full-man ; conference — a ready- 
man ; and writing — an exact-man. 

Tone is a particular modulation or inflection of the 
voice, suited to the sense.t 

VERSIFICATION. 

Prose is language not restrained to harmonic sounds, 
or to a set number of syllables. 

* Emphasis should be made rather by suspending the voice a little after 
the emphatic word, than by striking it very forcibly, which is disagreeable 
to a good ear. A very short pause before it would render it still more 
emphatical ; as, Reading makes a— full — man. 

| Accent and quantity respect the pronunciation of words ; emphasis and 
pause the meaning of the sentence ; while tone refers to the feelings of the 
speaker. 

139 



1*0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Verse or Poetry is language restrained to a certain 
number of long and short syllables in every line. 

Verse is of tioo kinds ; namely, Rhyme and Blank 
verse. When the last syllable of every two lines has 
the same sound, it is called rhyme ; but when this is 
not the case, it is called blank verse. 

Feet* are the parts into which a verse is divided, to 
see whether it has the proper number of syllables or not. 

Scanning is the measuring or dividing of a verset 
into the several feet of which it is composed. 

All feet consist either of two or three syllables, and 
are reducible to eight kino's ; four of two syllables, and 
four of three, as follow : 

Dissyllables. Trisyllables. 



A trochee ; as, lovely .J 
An iambus ; became. 
A spondee; vain man. 
A pyrrhic ; on a (bank). 



A dactyl ; as, probably. 
An amphibrach ; domestic. 
An anapaest; misimprove. 
A tribrach; (com)fortably. 



The feet in most common use are, Iambic, Trochaic, 
and Anapaestic. 

IAMBIC MEASURE. 

Iambic measure is adapted to serious subjects, and 
comprises verses of several kinds ; such as, 
1. -Of four syllables, or two fed ; as, 
With rav-ish'd ears, 
The Mun-arch hears. 

* So called, as some suppose, from the resemblance which the move- 
ment of the tongue, in reading verse, bears to the motion of the feet in 
walking. 

f A single line is called a verse. In rhyme two lines are called a couplet ; 
and three ending with the same sound a triplet. 

% The marks over the vowels show, that a Trochee consists of a long 
and a short syllable, and an Iambus of a short and a long, &c. 

(O In scanning verses, every accented syllable is called a long syllable ; 
even although the sound of the vowel in pronunciation is short. Thus, 
the first syllable in rav-ish'd is in scanning called a long syllable, although 
the vowel a is short. By long then is meant an accented syllable ; and by 
short, an unaccented syllable. 



ENGLISH PROSODY. 14.1 

r It sometimes has an additional short syllable, making what is 
called a double ending ,• as, 

UpGn-a, mGun-tain. 

BSside-a fcun-tam. 

2. Of three iambics, or six syllables ,- as 

Aloft -in aw-ful state, 
The gud-like he-ro sat. 
Our hearts-no lung-er Ian — guish. An additional 

syllable. 

3. Of eight syllables, or four iambic feet ,- as, 

And may -at last- m y wea-ry age 
Find out - the peace-ful her-mitage. 

4. Of ten syllables, or Jive feet ; called hexameter, heroic, or 
tragic verse,- as, 

The stars - sha.ll fade - away-the siin-himself 
Grow dim - with age, - and na-ture sink - in years. 

Sometimes the last line of a couplet is stretched out to twelve 
syllables, or six feet, and then it is called an Alexandrine verse ; 
as, 

For thee - the land - in fra-grant flowers - is dress'd ; 

For thee - the o-cea n smiles, - and smoothes - her wa-vy breast. 

5. Of verses containing alternately four and three feet ; this is 
the measure commonly used in psalms and hymns ; as, 

Let saints - below, - with sweet - accord, 

Unite - with those - above, 
In so - lemn lays, -to praise- their king, 
And sing -his dy-ing love. 
Q^j* Verses of this kind were anciently written in two lines, each 
containing fourteen syllables. 

TROCHAIC MEASURE. 

This measure is quick and lively, and comprises 

verses, 

1. Some of one trochee and a long syllable, and some of two 
trochees,- as, 

Tumult - cease, On the - mountain, 

Sink to - peace. Bj r a - fountain. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Of two feet or two trochees, with an additional long sylla- 
ble ; as, 

In the - days of- - old, 
Stories - plainlj - - told. 

3. Of three trochees, or three and an additional long syllable ,• 
as, 

When our - hearts are - mourning, 
Lovel/ - - lasting - peace of- - mind, 
Sweet de - light of- human - - kind. 

4. Of four trochees, or eight syllables ; as, 

Now the - dreadful - thunder's - roaring ! 

5. Of six trochees, or twelve syllables • as, 

On a-mountain,-stretch'd be-neath a-hoarv-willow, 
Lay a-shepherd-swain, and-view'd the - roaring-billow. 
Those trochaic measures that are very uncommon have been 
omitted. 

ANAP^STIC MEASURE. 

1. Of two anapaests, or two and an unaccented syllable ; as, 

But his coiir-age 'gan fail, 
For no arts - could avail. 
Or, Then his cour-age 'gan fail - - him. 
For no arts - could avail - - him. 

2. Of three anapaests, or nine syllables ; as, 

ye woods - spread your branch-es apace, 
To your deep-est recess-es I fly ; 

1 would hide - with the beasts - of the chase, 

I would van-ish from ev-ery eye. 

Sometimes a syllable is retrenched from the first foot ; as, 
Ye shep-herds so cheer-ful and gay, 
Whose flocks - never care-lessly roam. 

3. Of four anapaests, or twelve syllables, 

5 Tis the voice - of the slug-gird ; I hear - him complain. 
You have waked - me too soon, - I must slum-ber again. 

Sometimes an additional short syllable is found at the end; as, 
On the warm - cheek of youth, - smiles and ros-es are b\end-ing. 



ENGLISH PROSODY. 143 

The preceding are the different kinds of the Principal* feet, in 
their more simple forms ; but they are susceptible of numerous 
variations, by mixing them with one another, and with the Se- 
condary feet ; the following lines may serve as an example : — 

Time shakes - the stable - tyranny - of thrones, &c. 

Where is - to-morrow 1 - in anoth-er world. 

She all - night long - her am-oroils des-cint sung. 

Innumerable - before - th' Almigh-ty's throne. 

That on - weak wings - from far pursues - your flight. 

FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

Ji figure of Speech is a mode of speaking, in which 
a word or sentence is to be understood in a sense dif- 
ferent from its most common and literal meaning. 

The principal Figures of Speech are, 



Personification, 

Simile, 

Metaphor, 

Allegory, 

Hyper'bole, 

Irony, 

Metonymy, 



Synec'doche, 

Antithesis, 

Climax, 

Exclamation, 

Interrogation, 

Paralepsis, 

Apostrophe. 



Prosopopoeia, or, Personification, is that figure of speech by 
which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as, The 
sea saw it and fled. 

A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to 
another ; as, He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water. 

A metaphor is a simile without the sign (like, or as, &c.) of 
comparison ; as, Joseph is a fruitful bough, &c. 

An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so connected, 
in sense as to form a kind of parable or fable ; thus, the people of 
Israel are represented under the image of a vine, Ps. lxxx. 8. 

An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or 
less, better or worse, than they really are ; as, They were swifter 
than eagles, they were stronger than lions. 

* Iambus, trochee, and anapast, may be denominated principal feet; be- 
cause pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of them. 
The others may be termed secondary feet; because their chief use is to 
diversify the numbers and to improve the verse. 



/ 

144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of whi 
we say; as, when Elijah said to the worshippers of Baal, Ci 
aloud, for he is a god, &c. 

A metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for tr 
effect, or the effect for the cause; as, when we say, He reac 
Milton; we mean Milton's Works. 

Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the who 
for a part, a definite number for an indefinite, &c. as, The wavt 
for the sea, the head for the person, and ten thousand for any grec 
number. This figure is nearly allied to metonymy. 

Antithesis, or contrast, is a figure by which different or contrar 
objects are contrasted, to make them show one another to advar 
tage ; as, The wicked flee when no man pursueth, but the righteou 
are bold as a lion. 

Climax or Amplification is the heightening of all the circun 
stances of an object or action, which we wish to place in a stron 
light; as, Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Sha 
tribulation, or distress, or persecution, &c. See also Rom. viii. 3£ 

Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some stion 
emotion of the mind ; as, Oh the depth of the riches both of th 
wisdom and the knowledge of God ! 

Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion o 
our mind, and enliven our discourse by proposing questions; thus 
Hath the Lord said it ] and shall he not do it 1 

Paralepsis or omission, is a figure by which the speaker pretend 
to conceal what he is really declaring and strongly enforcing ; as 
Horitius was once a very promising young gentleman, but h< 
became so addicted to gaming, not to mention his drunkennes, 
and debauchery, that ,he soon exhausted his estate. 

Apostrophe, is a turning off from the subject to address some 
other person or thing ; as, Death is swallowed up in victory : C 
death, where is thy sting ] 



THE END. 



